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GENERAL    FOUNDRY    PRACTICE 


GENERAL  FOUNDRY 
PRACTICE 

Being  a  Treatise  on  General  Iron  Founding, 
Job  Loam  Practice,  Moulding  and  Casting  of 
the  Finer  Metals,  Practical  Metallurgy  in 
the  Foundry,  and  Patternmaking  from  a 
Moulder's  Point  of  View 


BY 


WILLIAM    ROXBURGH,   M.R.S.A 

M 

Foundry  Manager,  Kilmarnock 


NEW   YORK 

D.   VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY 

23    MURRAY   AND   27    WARREN   STREETS 

1910 


PREFACE 

MANY  years'  experience  as  a  moulder  and  foundry  manager 
has  demonstrated  to  the  author  the  need  there  is  for  such  a 
book  as  here  presented,  which  is  based  on  the  modern  lines 
of  theory  and  practice  combined,  and-  which  contains  nothing 
but  what  has  passed  through  the  author's  own  hands,  during 
an  experience  of  over  thirty  years. 

The  whole  work  is  light  and  practical  reading,  and  is 
intended  to  give  the  greatest  amount  of  information  on 
foundry  methods,  materials,  and  metals,  with  the  least 
possible  study. 

A  book  such  as  this,  although  primarily  intended  for 
moulders  and  founders  of  every  description,  is  also  written  for 
draughtsmen,  patternmakers,  and  the  engineering  profession 
in  general. 

As  a  text  book  it  will  be  most  interesting  to  many  students 
of  metallurgy  and  users  of  metals,  who  either  cast  or  con- 
struct. Nevertheless,  to  some  it  may  show  but  little  new  in 
founding,  and  probably  something  which  may  be  objected  to. 
Still,  on  the  other  hand,  there  may  be  just  as  many,  nay 
more,  to  whom  the  book  may,  at  least,  be  a  source  of  relief  in 
times  of  difficulty,  and  to  such,  and  all  that  are  interested  in 
the  abstruse  problems  of  founding  in  its  many  phases  is  this 
book  specially  commended. 

The  author  thankfully  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
The  Ironmonger  for  the  use  of  the  following  articles,  from  his 
pen,  which  appeared  in  recent  issues  of  this  Journal,  all  of 
which  have  been  more  or  less  amended  for  this  work  :— 
"Starting  a  Small  Iron  Foundry,"  "Metal  Mixing  and  its 


217094 


vi  PREFACE 

Adaptation/'  "  Starting  a  Small  Brass  Foundry,"  "  Aluminium 
Castings  and  Alloys,"  "  Moulding  for  Aluminium  Castings," 
^-Malleable-Cast." 

Likewise,  the  author's  special  thanks  are  due  to  the  several 
pig-iron  manufacturers  whose  analyses  are  herein  recorded, 
for  specially  preparing  those  analyses  which  in  every  case  are 
up-to-date,  and  specially  sanctioned  for  publication  in  this 
work. 

Lastly,  the  author's  thanks  are  also  due  to  Mr.  0.  F. 
Hudson,  M.Sc.,  of  Birmingham,  for  assistance  given  in  the 
form  of  editing  this  work,  and  this  particularly  applies  to  the 
chapters  on  "  Practical  Metallurgy  in  The  Foundry "  and 
"  Fluid  Pressure." 

WILLIAM    ROXBURGH. 

KlLMAENOCK, 

January,   1910. 


CONTENTS 

DIVISION  I 

GENERAL  IRON  FOUNDING 

PAGE 

Starting  a  Small  Iron  Foundry          .         .         .         .         .  -.'.-•  .  .         1 
Moulding  Sands         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ...       14 

Location  of  Impurities .         .  .       23 

Core"  Gum        „.        .        .        .        .        .        ......  .27 

Blow  Holes .        ...       29 

Burning  Castings .  .32 

Venting     .         .         .         . " '     .         .         .         .         '.                  .  .       35 

The  Use  of  the  Kiser  in  Casting        .         .         .         .        .        .  .       38 

Chaplets .       .  .         .  .       42 

Shrinkage.         .         .         .         .         .         .        >. "       .         .         .  .44 

Pressure  of  Molten  Iron  (Ferro-Static  Pressure)       .         .         .  j  .       57 

Feeding  or  the  Compression  of  Metals       .         .         .'        .         .  .       63 
Metal  Mixing    .         .         .         .         .         .         .'.'...       71 

Temperature      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .       |.         .  "  .       79 

Defects  in  Cast-iron  Castings    .         .         .         ...         .  .83 

Special  Pipes  (and  Patterns)— Green-Sand  and  Dry-Sand        .  .       87 

Core  Clipping '  .    ;    .  .     108 

Machine  and  Snap  Flask  Moulding  .         .         .         .    '     .         .  .113 

Moulding  Cylinders  and  Cylinder  Cores    .         .         .         .         :  .116 

Jacketed  Cylinders    .         .        .        .         .         ...        .  125 

Core-Sands .v     .         .  •     135 

Moulding  a  Corliss  Cylinder  in  Dry-Sand         .         .         .         .  .139 

General  Pipe  Core  Making         .         .         .         .         .         .         ./  .146 

Chilled  Castings .153 

Flasks  or  Moulding  Boxes         .         .         .         .         .         ..  .158 

Gates  and  Gating       .         .      *  .         .         .      •  .         /       .         .  .165 


DIVISION  II 

JOBBING  LOAM   PRACTICE 

Loam  Moulding         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .173 

Moulding  a  36"  Cylinder  Liner 177 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Moulding  a  Slide  Valve  Cylinder .  1S2 

Moulding  a  Cylinder  Cover 186 

Cores  and  Core  Irons  for  a  Slide  Valve  Cylinder       ....  188 

Moulding  a  Piston 191 

Loam  Moulding  in  Boxes  or  Casings 194 

Moulding  a  20"  Loco.  Boiler-Front  Cress-Block         .         .         .         .196 

The  Use  of  Ashes  and  Dry- Sand  in  Loam  Moulding          .         .         .  199 


DIVISION  III 

MOULDING  AND   CASTING   THE   FINER  METALS 

Starting  a  Small  Brass  Foundry  : — Furnaces ;  Waste  in  Melting  ; 
Moulding ;  Temperatures ;  Brass  Mixtures,  etc. ;  Draw  and 
Integral  Shrinkage;  Position  of  Casting  and  Cooling  the 
Castings 203 

Bronzes : — Aluminium ;  Phosphor ;  Manganese,  and  running  with 

the  Plug  gate 215 

Casting  Speculums  : — The  Alloy ;  Draw  ;  Treatment  of  Castings  ; 

Compression  and  Annealing  ;  Melting  and  Pouring;  Moulding  217 

Aluminium  Founding  : — Scabbing  ;  Sand  ;  Gating  ;  Risers  ;  Melt- 
ing ;  and  Temperature 221 

Aluminium  Castings  and  Alloys 227 

"  Malleable- Cast "  230 


Practical  Metallurgy  in  the  Foundry 233 

General  Patternmaking  from  a  Moulder's  Point  of  View  .         .         .  246 

Foundry  Ovens  and  their  Construction 268 

Fuels 274 

Foundry  Tools 279 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.        .  PAGE 

1 .  Plan  of  Small  Foundry        .         .         .         .         .         ...  4 

2.  Elevation  of  Small  Foundry        .         .         .         .         .         .         .  4 

3.  Plan  of  Offices  and  Stores    .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  4 

4.  Plain  Top-part 7 

5.  End  Elevation  of  Top  and  Bottom  Boxes    .         .....'        .  7 

6.  Pattern  for  Box  Handles,  Figs.  4  and  5      .         ...         .  7 

7.  Box-part  Piece  for  Columns  and  Pipes        .         .         .         .         .  8 

8.  Handle  Pattern  and  Core  for  Crane  Boxes  .         .         .         .         .8 

9.  Swivel  Core  for  ditto -.         .         .  •     8 

10.  Box-Bar  Pattern ;.         .         .        8 

11.  Moulding  Tub  for  Light  Castings        .    .    '.         .         .         .         .         9 

12.  24-in.  Cupola  for  Light  Castings          .        '.         .         .         .         .       12 

13.  Marking  Table  Casting        .         .         ...        .         .         .24 

14.  Elevation  of  Table  Casting .         .         <         .        ....         .,       .       24 

15.  Sectional  End  Elevation  of  Barrel  with  Dirt  Receptacle  on  Top       25 

16.  Blowhole  on  Topside  of  Pipe  Casting  .         .         <         .        .         .       30 

17.  Plan  of  Pipe  showing  Blowhole  .         .  .       t  .         .  "       .       30 

18.  Sectional  Elevation  showing  Blowhole         .         .         .         .       '*.       30 

19.  "  Burned"  Shaft          ;    . ,  .         ....       33 

20.  Section  of  Shaft .33 

21.  "  Burned"  Pipe  Flange      ....         ...:'.    .'      .         .       34 

22.  Cross  Section  of  Mould,  showing  Vents       .         ...         .         .       36 

23.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Flange  Pipe  and  Basins        .  .       39 

24.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Pipe  or  Tube  with  Basins      ...       39 

25.  Plan  of  Diagonal  Ribbed  Box     .         .         .         ...         .48 

26.  Plan  of  Double  Diagonal  Ribbed  Box          .       - , ;       .         .,  •      .       48 

27.  Tank  Plate 49 

28.  Square-ribbed  Box      .         .         .         .         .         ....         .49 

29.  Cross  Section  of  Soleplate  Leg    .         .  .         ;         .         .51 

30.  Cross  Section  of  Box  Soleplate  Leg     .         .         ....       52 

31.  Sectional  Plan  of  Loam  Cylinder  Mould     .         .         .         ...       56 

32.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Cylinder  Loam  Mould     .  -       .  .57 

33.  Cross  Section  of  Mould  and  Box  with  Lifting  Pressure  Diagram       (50 

34.  Section  of  Solid  Cubes  for  Pressure  Calculation  ....       61 

35.  Section  of  Square  Cube  without  Ends         .         .         ...     •  .         .62 

36.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Double  Flange  Pipes     ....       66 

37.  Section  of  Plate  with  Hollow  and  Solid  Bosses  .  68 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

38.  Ingot  Casting  when  Fluid 70 

39.  Ingot  Casting  when  Solidified      . 71 

40.  Cross  Section  of  Pipe  .         .         ...         .         .         .  .77 

41.  Cross  Section  of  Plate          .         .         .    -    \         .         .         .  .77 

42.  Cross  Section  of  Pipe  .         ,         ....         .         .         .  .77 

43.  Cross  Section  of  Plate          .         .        .        ,         .         .         .  .77 

44.  Barrel  with  part  of  Flange  removed    .         .         .         .         .  .81 

45.  Elevation  showing  Defect  in  Bore       .         .         .         .         .  .       81 

46.  Section  of  Plate  in  Mould  with  "  Dumb- scab  "  .         .         .  .       83 

47.  Vertical  Cast  Earn       ...         .         .'       .         .     '  .  -      .  .       80 

48.  Cylinder  Cover  (Disproportionate  Metal)    .       ..         .        '.-'  .       86 

49.  Cylinder  Cover  (Proportionate  Metal)         ...         ,         .  .       86 

50.  S.  Pipe  Core  Plate  (wood)  .         ...         •  '•'.•     .   ".  .      •-  .       89 

51.  Core  Sweep         .         .         .        .        .        .        .^       .         .  .      89 

52.  Section  of  Core  .         .         ...               *.         .        .         .  .       89 

53.  Flanged  Skeleton  Pattern  .         .-  ,     .      *.         .         ;         .  .       89 

54.  Mould  Sweep       .         .         .         ,       '.         .   :     .         .         .  .       89 

55.  Air  Vessel  Pattern  (Boss)    .         .         .         .        ,         .         ,:  .       92 

56.  Section  of  an  Air  Vessel  Coie      .         ..       ,      .  .         ...  .       94 

57.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Bottle-necked  Pipe     '  .         .  ^     .  .       96 

58.  Bell-mouthed  Pipe      .         .         .         .         .         .         .  -    .  .       97 

59.  Stool  Bend  Pipe ~,.    .....  .     100 

60.  End  Elevation  of  Stool  Bend       .         .       ".  .  ',    .        .        .  .100 

61.  Core  Iron  and  PI  ate  for  Bend  Pipes    .       '.     .'    .         .         .  .101 

62.  Cross  Section  of  Core  .         .         .-'.'..         .         .  .     101 

63.  Cross  Section  of  Plate  and  Half  Core  .         .         -,      •         '  •     101 

64.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Pump  Pipe  Box,  Mould  and  Core,  etc.     104 

65.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Pump  Pipe  cast  on  "  The  Bank  "  .  .     106 

66.  Gates  and  Risers  on  Flange        .     ....         .         .  .     107 

67.  Cross  Section  of  detached  Core  Clips  (double)     .         .         .  .     109 

68.  Core  Clips  attached     .         .         .                       .-  *         .  ,      .  ; .     Ill 

69.  Cross  Section  of  Core  Clips  attached  (double)      .         .,    ~  • .  .     112 

70.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Cylinder  with  Sinking-head  .         .  .     122 

71.  Cross  Section  of  Cylinder  with  Arrows  on  Spongy  Parts     .  .123 

72.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Jacket  Cylinder  Core  before  Dressing,  etc.     128 

73.  Corliss  Cylinder  (half  pattern)  in  Moulding  Box          .         .  .     140 

74.  End  Elevation  of  Corliss  Cylinder  Box  Mould  and  Cores    .  .     141 

75.  End  Elevation  of  Corliss  Cylinder  Cores      .         .              .  \.  .     143 

76.  Exhaust  Cylinder  Core  joining  Port  Cores  at  Arrows        ;.    .  .     144 

77.  Plan  of  Bend  Pipes  without  Stangey           .        -«  >   .         .  .     148 

78.  Section  of  Bank  Pipe  Core  .  .1-19 

79.  Part  of  Cross  Section  of  Vertical  Pipe  Core  Bar  .         .  ,      .  .     152 

80.  Elevation  of  Chilled  Anvil  Mould        .         .      -.         .         .  .     153 

81.  Plan  of  Top-Part  for  Half-wheels,  etc.         .         .         .         »,.  .     160 

82.  Segment  Pattern  of  Pulley  Box .         .         ._       .         .         .  ,.     161 

83.  Five-part  Box  with  Mould  .        ...         .         .         .     ./.     162 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 

FIG.  PAGE 

84.  Half-Duplex  Vertical  Pipe  Casing 163 

85.  Sectional  End  Elevation  of  Pipe  Casing 163 

86.  Small  Wheel  with  Worm  Gate 166 

87.  Spur  Wheel  with  Fountain  Gate 167 

88.  Loam  Condenser  with  Bottom  Gates          .         .         .         .         .169 

89.  Loam  Cross  with  Spindle  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  1 73 

90.  Plan  of  Cross  and  Spindle  .         .         .         .         .         .         .173 

91.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Cylinder  Liner 178 

Bottom  Cylinder  Liner  Plate  Drawn  off  on  "  Bed"  .         .         .178 
Bottom  Bearing  Sweep  for  Cylinder  Liner         .         .         .         .179 

,  94.  Top  Cake  Sweep  for  Cylinder  Liner 179 

95A.  Top  Cope  Gauge  for  Cylinder  Liner 179 

95B.  Core  Gauge  Stick  for  Cylinder  Liner 179 

96.  Cylinder  Liner  . 180 

97.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Cylinder  Liner  Top  Cake        .         .         .181 

98.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Slide  Valve  Cylinder  Loam  Mould          .  183 

99.  Plan  of  Bottom  Plate  and  Building  Eings  for  Slide  Yalve 

Cylinder 183 

100.  Sweep  Stick  for  Bottom  Bearing  of  Slide  Yalve  Cylinder  .         .184 

101.  Gauge  Stick  for  Steam  Port  Core .185 

102.  Exhaust  Core  for  Slide  Yalve  Cylinder 185 

103.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Cylinder  *Cover 186 

104.  Sweep  Stick  for  Cylinder  Cover 187 

105.  Sweep  Stick  for  Cylinder  Cover  Top  Cake         .         .         .         .187 

106.  Section  of  Steam  Port  Core  Box 189 

107.  Plan  of  Core-iron  for  Steam  of  Slide  Yalve  Cylinder         .         .189 

108.  Sweep  Stick  for  Steam  Port  Core  Box 189 

109.  Section  of  Lightening  Core  Box 189 

110.  Section  of  Exhaust  Port  Core 190 

111.  Section  of  Steam  Chest  Core  Box  and  Core        .         .         .         .190 

112.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Piston  Loam  Mould        ....     191 

113.  Piston  Top-Cake  Sweep     .         .         .         .  .         .         .192 

114.  Piston  Bottom  Board          .  192 

115.  Piston  Plug  Core  Box ,         .         .192 

116.  Web  or  Arm  Board  for  Piston   ....         .         .         .193 

117.  Plan  of  Piston  showing  Gates  and  Plug-holes  .         .         .         .193 

118.  Plan  of  Core-irons  for  Piston 193 

119.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Piston  and  Moulding  Box      .         .         .195 

120.  Plan  of  Cress-Block  and  Moulding  Box 196 

121.  Elevation  of  Cress-Block  and  Moulding  Box     .         .         .         .197 

122.  Circle  Sweep  for  Cress-Block 198 

123.  Plan  of  Sweep  for  Cress-Block 198 

124.  Guide  for  Sweep  Fig.  123  Cress-Block      .  .     198 

125.  Skeleton  Pattern  Curve  for  Cress-Block 199 

126.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Brass  Furnaces 204 

127.  End  Elevation  of  Brass  Furnaces  205 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

128.  Cross  Section  of  Moulding  Tub  for  Brass  Foundry    .         .         .  20G 

129.  Elevation  of  Brass  Casting  and  Moulding  Box,  showing  Shrink 

Cavities  (vertical  position)  .         .         .         .         .         .         .211 

130.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Box  and  Casting  (horizontal  position ;     .  212 

131.  Section  of  Speculum,  showing  Shi  ink  Cavities.  .         .218 

132.  Section  of  Speculum  (Improved  Density) .  .  .  219 

133.  Tensile  Test  Bar         .         .         . 245 

134.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Cast-iron  Spigot  and  Faucet  Pipe  Pattern  248 

135.  End  Section  of  Cast-iron  Bank-pipe  Core-box  ....  250 

136.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Shell  Stucco  Pattern    .         .  .  254 

137.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Stucco  Block  Board  and  Sweep      .         .254 

138.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Stucco  Faucet  Mould  ....  255 

139.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Stucco-Block  and  Sweep         .         .         .  25 H 

140.  Iron  Frame  for  Sweeping  Spigot  and  Faucet  Pipe-Mould          .  259 

141.  Body  Sweep       .        ...         .    I  .         .  260 

142.  Eevolving  Faucet  Sweep  .     '    .         ...  .  260 

143.  Pivot  Frame  Sweep  for  Fig.  142        ....  .  260 

144.  Elevation  of  Mould  Sweep         .  .  .2(51 

145.  Elevation  of  Core  Sweep    ....  261 

146.  Cross  Section  of  Core,  Mould,  Sweep,  and  Box  .         .  2(51 

147.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Eeduced  Mould  and  Original  Pattern    .  2(i:j 

148.  Elevation  of  Cutting  Stick  for  Spur-Wheels      ....  2(54 

149.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Increased  Mould  and  Original  Pattern  .  265 

150.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Eeduced  Capped  Spur  Wheel  and  Original 

Pattern        .         .     -   .        .         .    •     .         .         .  o(j(; 

151.  Sectional  Elevation   of  Increased   Capped   Spur  Wheel  and 

Original  Pattern .         .;        .         .        '.'     .         .  '  .  268 

152.  Sectional  Side  Elevation  of  Foundry  Oven  Fire        v  270 

153.  Sectional  Elevation  of  Oven  Eoof      .         .         .  271 

154.  Front  and  End  Elevation  of  Moulder's  Beam    .  „  2X0 

155.  End  Elevation  of  ditto       .  .         .  280 

156.  Stirrup  Hook  for  Swivel  Boxes  .  2S1 

157.  Cast  Iron  Clamp        .         .         .-.  282 

158.  End  Elevation  of  Einger  and  Binder         .         .  .  2S3 

159.  Cross  Section  of  Stool        ...  .  2S4 

160.  Screw  Hook  for  Slinging  Cores,  etc.  .  ...  2S5 

161.  Double  Shifting  Hooks      .         .         .  286 


FACTS  ON   GENERAL 
FOUNDRY    PRACTICE 

DIVISION   I 
GENERAL   IRON   FOUNDING 

STARTING    A    SMALL    IEON    FOUNDRY 

THE  starting  of  an  iron  foundry  may  seem  at  first  sight  to 
many  a  simple  affair,  but  bearing  in  mind  the  wide  range  of 
a  jobbing  foundry's  requirements  in  matters  of  convenience, 
site,  and  equipment  it  will  be  found  to  involve  a  great  deal  of 
careful  thought  and  consideration. 

Small  foundries  are  to  a  great  extent  in  city  life  a  thing  of 
the  past,  but  here  and  there  the  necessity  arises  for  such, 
especially  in  a  thriving  agricultural  district ;  and  such  foundries 
are  still,  and  always  have  been,  an  indispensable  adjunct  to 
a  successful  country  engineering  works.  It  is  not  intended 
to  choose  any  particular  class  of  founding,  or  to  go  deeply 
into  the  question  of  the  amount  of  capital  required  for  starting 
business  on  the  lines  suggested,  but  simply  to  try  to  outline 
what  sort  of  foundry  is  required  for  an  output  of  5  or  6 
tons  per  week  of  jobbing  castings,  under  normal  conditions 
such  as  are  known  to  practical  men.  In  the  event  of  the 
would-be  foundry  master  deciding  to  build,  the  judicious 
selection  of  a  suitable  place  for  the  foundry  is  of  paramount 
importance.  The  cartage  or  handling  of  all  raw  materials, 
such  as  sands,  coal,  coke,  pig  iron,  etc.,  and  the  finished  pro- 
duct, castings,  is  a  serious  item  in  the  working  expenses  of  a 
foundry,  and  means  money  lost  or  won  in  proportion  to  the 
care  exercised  in  selecting  the  best  possible  site.  Other  things 

F.P.  K 


2  PACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

being  equal,  this  point  has  the  greatest  possible  influence  in 
determining  the  success  or  failure  in  the  working  of  foundries 
whether  large  or  small. 

In  the  foregoing  we  have  many  reasons  influencing  the 
position  of  the  building,  but  along  with  these  we  must  study 
the  conditions  below  the  surface.  Many  have  unwittingly 
built  foundries,  especially  of  the  class  doing  heavy  work, 
where  pits  for  casting  are  an  absolute  necessity,  and  have 
found  to  their  cost  afterwards  that  a  great  mistake  had  been 
made  through  want  of  care  in  selecting  the  site.  At  the  first 
digging  of  a  pit  they  have  been  surprised  by  encountering 
water  at  a  depth  of  4  or  5  ft.,  which  throughout  was 
troublesome,  and  before  such  pits  could  be  made  secure  iron 
tanks  suitable  for  the  work  in  hand  had  to  be  made  and  sunk, 
thus  securing  absolute  freedom  from  water.  Hence  all  foun- 
dries should  be  drained  thoroughly  round  their  outsides  to  a 
depth  sufficient  to  discharge  automatically  any  water  in  the 
floor.  The  lowest  level  of  the  floor  should,  if  possible,  be 
taken  from  the  highest  level  of  the  water,  and  if  there  be 

3  ft.  between  this  and  the  highest  floor  level,  and  more  is 
required,  the  top  level  of  the  floor  should  be  raised  to  give  the 
required  depth.     In  some  cases  such  an  arrangement  would 
prove  an  advantage,  since  cupola  slag  and  other  rubbish  could 
be  dumped  round  the  outside  walls  of  the  foundry.     Of  course, 
where  moulding  is  entirely  of  the  turnover  or  machine  class, 
and  no  bedding-in  is  done,  drainage  is   of  no  consequence 
practically. 

Building. — The  next  point  to  decide  is  the  structure,  whether 
it  shall  be  of  wood,  brick,  stone,  or  iron,  or  a  combination  of 
all  these  materials.  This  question  is  often  settled  by  the 
amount  of  capital  available,  but  whatever  the  structure  be,  it 
must  be  wind  and  water-tight,  as  it  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance to  protect  moulds  from  rain  or  frost,  while  with  a  dry 
atmosphere  is  as  troublesome  to  some  green-sand  moulders 
as  excessive  dampness  and  cold.  If  all  the  work  done  in 
green-sand  by  moulders  in  large  or  small  foundries  could  be 
executed  at  a  uniform  temperature  of  about  50  or  60°  Fahr., 
the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  such  conditions  of  working 
would  more  than  meet  the  outlay  attending  the  heating  of 


STARTING  A  SMALL  IRON  FOUNDRY  3 

some  of  our  large  foundries  in  winter,  while  in  not  a  few  cases 
the  cost  of  improved  ventilation  would  be  more  than  com- 
pensated for  during  the  summer  months  by  increased  output. 
It  is  an  undoubted  fact  that  the  better  the  conditions  under 
which  men  have  to  work  in  the  foundry,  the  greater  are  the 
profits  to  the  employer  for  wages  paid,  other  things  being  equal. 

Water. — Having  duly  warned  the  intending  ironfounder 
against  an  excess  of  water,  we  now  proceed  to  insist  upon  a 
sufficient  supply,  for  this  is  indispensable  in  the  foundry  for 
watering  and  mixing  the  sand  after  castings  have  been  taken 
from  the  floor,  and  for  use  in  the  making  of  loams,  etc.  If 
steam  be  the  motive  power  of  the  works  the  cost  of  water  for 
boiler  feeding  purposes  is  also  a  matter  for  serious  considera- 
tion. Water,  then,  at  even  the  cheapest  possible  rate  means 
much  in  the  foundry.  The  advantages  of  starting  a  small 
country  shop  in  a  good  agricultural  locality,  where  it  is  possible 
to  build  near  a  running  stream,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  to 
be  free  from  risk  of  trouble  with  the  foundry  floor,  will  be 
obvious,  but  the  opportunities  of  so  starting  are  few.  Where 
such  a  plan  is  practicable,  all  motive  power  for  blast,  etc., 
could  be  secured  by  the  use  of  a  water  wheel  or  turbine,  besides 
having  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  all  foundry  purposes. 
Such  an  arrangement  of  the  foundry  would  go  a  great  way 
in  compensating  for  the  inconvenience  of  country  situation 
when  compared  with  the  production  of  castings  in  a  city 
where  rents  and  taxes  are  abnormally  high. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  ground  plan  of  a  foundry,  40  ft.  by 
28  ft.,  which  should  give  ample  room  for  the  production  of 
5  or  6  tons  of  jobbing  castings  per  week.  This  output  is 
computed  on  the  basis  of  alternate-day  meltings,  but  it  may 
be  considerably  increased  by  casting  daily.  Some  small  shops 
do  well  on  the  former,  others  may  do  better  on  the  latter ;  it 
is  all  a  question  of  how  far  it  may  concern  individual  cases, 
having  regard  to  circumstances  and  economy.  In  Fig.  1,  A  is 
the  derrick  crane ;  B  the  cupola  and  spout  or  runner,  led  inwards 
through  the  wall  of  the  foundry;  C  is  the  stove  for  drying 
cores  and  moulds ;  D  the  fire-hole  ;  F  the  small  shop  suitable 
for  making  cores,  mixing  sands,  shelving  core-boxes  and 
patterns,  and  containing  the  core-stove  E  ;  G  are  columns  for 

B  2 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


!!  ' 


xA 


carrying  the  structure ;  H  the  moulding-tub ;  I  the  smithy 
and  dressing  shop ;  J  (Fig.  3)  is  the  office  ;  K  the  clay  mill 
shed ;  L  the  pattern  shop  and  store.  Fig.  2  shows  the 
columns  G  with  the  traverser-bracket  M  cast  on.  These 
details  are  only  the  bare  outlines,  and  the  offices  attached  may 
or  may  not  be  required.  Whatever  motive  power  is  decided 

upon  care  must  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  fan  shall  be  placed  to 
blow  as  directly  as  possible  at, 
say,  a  distance  of  20  or  30  ft. 
from  the  cupola.  On  the  ques- 
tion of  materials  for  the  con- 
struction, the  most  up-to-date 
plan  is  to  begin  by  planting 
the  columns  on  concrete  or 
stone  foundations  at  suitable 
distances,  to  ensure  safety 
for  carrying  the  roof.  These 
columns  are  usually  H  section, 
and  are  made  with  suitable  pro- 
jections or  brackets  for  carrying 
the  rails  of  the  traverser  crane. 
The  brackets  add  but  little  to 
the  cost  of  the  columns,  and 
may  either  be  cast  on,  or  pro- 
vision may  be  made  for  bolting 
them  on  at  some  future  occa- 
sion. This  is  a  matter  for  con- 
sideration at  the  outset  even 
if  a  "  traveller "  is  not  then 
put  in. 

With  a  foundry  on  a  still  smaller  scale  than  the  one  we 
have  before  us  an  H  joist  or  beam  might  be  erected  in  line 
with  the  spout  of  the  cupola  across  the  shop  after  the  fashion 
of  an  overhead  rail.  A  block  and  tackle  fixed  on  this,  and 
capable  of  being  shifted  sideways,  would  in  some  measure 
meet  the  want  of  crane  power  incidental  to  a  small  country 
shop.  But  with  the  foundry  built  of  columns,  as  shown  in  the 
end  view  (Fig.  2),  and  with  sides  and  ends  either  brick  or 


1  o  I 
FIG.  1. 


FIG.  3. 


STARTING  A  SMALL  IRON  FOUNDRY  5 

corrugated  iron,  a  small  "  traverser  "  could  be  placed  on  rails 
suitable  for  the  heaviest  box  or  ladle  likely  to  be  in  use. 

A  derrick  crane  requires  substantial  walls  for  binding  the 
crane  thereto,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  traverser 
because  there  is  no  side  thrust  set  up  by  its  working.  In  the 
ground  plan  (Fig.  1)  we  have  only  shown  two  doors — first,  the 
large  door  on  the  side  next  the  cupola  B,  and  second,  the  door 
on  the  side  wall  of  the  smithy  and  dressing  or  fettling  shop. 
For  obvious  reasons  the  sizes  are  not  specified,  and  others 
may  be  arranged  for  whenever  such  may  be  thought  necessary. 

The  Foundry  Floor. — To  a  practical  moulder  this  does  not 
present  many  difficulties  ;  he  would  simply  clear  out  the  bottom 
to  the  depth  required,  and  so  prepare  it  for  the  floor  sand. 
The  question  of  the  cost  and  quality  of  moulding  sand,  how- 
ever, is  an  important  one  when  starting  a  new  foundry,  and 
much  depends  on  local  conditions  and  the  distance  of  the  pits 
or  quarries  from  the  foundry.  In  selecting  a  sand  or  sands  for 
moulding  no  particular  lines  can  be  laid  down  for  the  guidance 
of  the  non -practical  man.  A  sand  suitable  for  one  class  of 
work  may  possess  all  the  properties  which  go  to  make  a  good 
sand  for  moulding  in  the  eyes  of  some  men,  and  yet  might  be 
condemned  for  the  same  class  of  work  by  other  and  equally 
good  moulders.  Such  is  the  prejudice  of  experience  gained 
under  different  conditions.  However,  the  distinctive  qualities 
for  practical  moulding  are  plasticity  and  porosity.  The  sands 
best  known  in  the  British  Isles  may  be  said  with  comparative 
safety  to  be  "  London,"  "  Belfast,"  and  "  Scotch  rock."  Equal 
parts  of  these  sands  would  make  a  fairly  good  floor  for  general 
work,  and  if  we  keep  to  the  distinctive  characteristics  given, 
it  matters  not  whether  it  be  black,  brown,  red,  or  yellow,  the 
safety  of  selecting  a  sand  for  moulding  purposes  is  practically 
assured.  The  dividing  lines  between  green  sand,  dry  sand, 
facing  sands,  etc.,  are  fully  dealt  with  in  "Moulding  Sands," 
(p.  14).  Hence'  it  will  be  observed  that,  while  the  sands 
as  suggested  are  stipulated  as  a  guide  for  the  making  of 
a  foundry  floor,  it  nevertheless  leaves  the  way  clear  to  adapt 
whatever  sands  may  be  locally  accessible  for  moulding 
purposes. 

In  order  to  start  the  operations  of  moulding,  the  floor  may 


6  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

be  filled  to  a  depth  of  9  to  12  ins.,  and,  should  a  greater 
depth  be  required  for  special  work  it  is  only  a  matter  of 
digging,  additional  sand  being  added  from  time  to  time  as 
required  for  such  work.  This  method  of  forming  a  floor  for  a 
small  foundry  is  perfectly  good,  but  must  not  be  taken  as 
applying  to  foundries  that  are  intended  for  heavy  work,  in 
which  case  depth  would  be  controlled  according  to  work 
anticipated.  But,  whether  with  large  or  small  foundries,  floor 
making  is  really  the  result  of  work  done  and  the  methods  of 
doing  it.  Moulding  sand  is  generally  computed  for  at 
1  cwt.  per  cubic  foot  when  compressed  by  ramming ;  but  in 
view  of  the  moisture,  etc.,  in  it,  this  is  but  a  rule-of-thumb 
way  of  making  the  calculation.  Fifty  or  sixty  tons  of  sand 
might  suffice  for  forming  the  floor  of  the  shop  in  question. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  floor  would  be  in  a  virgin 
condition  and  comparatively  free  from  coal  dust  or  other 
carbonaceous  matter.  Therefore  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  coal 
dust  properly  mixed  with  it  would  be  an  advantage.  This  is 
not  imperative,  because  this  proportion  of  coal  dust  could  be 
added  to  each  batch  of  facing  sand  until  the  floor  had  developed 
by  the  process  of  casting. 

Cranes  and  Boxes. — In  the  selection  of  plant  for  a  jobbing 
foundry,  some  idea  must  be  formed  of  the  work  likely  to 
be  done.  Something  has  already  been  said  about  crane 
power.  A  derrick  with  the  capacity  for  lifting  2  or  3  tons 
should,  in  a  general  way,  do  all  that  is  required.  It  may 
either  be  of  wood,  steel,  or  iron,  of  T,  L,  or  H  sections  plated. 
It  should  have  quick  and  slow  motions,  which  are  preferable 
with  hand-power  cranes.  If,  howewer,  the  crane  is  smaller 
than  suggested,  a  single-geared  motion  midway  between  the 
ratios  of  a  quick  and  slow  type  will  prove  cheap  and  handy. 
In  the  matter  of  boxes,  everything  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  shop  and  work  to  be  done  in  it. 

Although  here  and  there  an  odd  wooden  flask  may  be  found, 
iron  flasks  are  almost  exclusively  used  in  this  country.  In 
America,  on  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  wooden  flasks  was 
until  recently  practically  universal ;  but  the  iron  flask  is  now 
becoming  very  popular,  and  has  in  some  cases  entirely  super- 
seded the  wooden  flask.  Whether  of  wood  or  cast  iron,  the 


STARTING  A  SMALL  IRON  FOUNDRY 


I 


D 


u 


FIG.  4. 


design  of  boxes  is  much  the  same,  although  the  details  of 
construction  vary  considerably.  It  will  be  assumed  that  the 
boxes  are  to  be  cast  in  the  usual  way,  and  a  few  leading 
features  illustrated.  Thus,  Fig.  4  shows  a  top-part  box  2  ft. 
by  2  ft.  by  6  ins.  ;  Fig.  5,  both  the  drag  and  top  part  in  end 
elevation  ;  while  Fig.  6  represents  the  handle  pattern,  which 
is  simply  entered  from  the  inside,  as  may  be  noticed  in  both 
parts  of  Fig.  5.  When  ram- 
ming up  the  bars  of  Fig.  4,  place 
a  trowel,  or  something  else 
suitable,  over  the  four  holes  in 
the  pattern,  and  thus  save  the 
sand  from  finding  its  way 
through  and  wasting  the  handles 
during  the  process  of  ramming 
up  the  box  bars,  as  seen  at 
Fig.  4.  Of  course  the  handles 
might  be  made  of  wrought  iron  ; 
but  if  this  were  done,  f  in.  or 
|  in.  -extra  thickness  of  metal 
would  need  to  be  added  where 
the  dotted  lines  are  shown  in 
the  top  and  drag  of  Fig.  5.  In 
making  this  pattern  the  bars 
should  be  made  up  with  screws, 
so  that  the  outside  frame  might 
be  used  to  make  both  halves 
economically  by  transposing  the  top  bars  to  the  bottom,  or 
vice  versa. 

Crane  work  in  the  smallest  of  foundries  is  often  indispen- 
sable, and  therefore  crane  boxes  must  be  employed  at  times. 
With  this  class  of  box  plant,  if  a  foundryman  understands  his 
business,  the  cost  of  pattern-making  can  be  kept  at  a  minimum 
by  ignoring  the  principle  of  complete  patterns.  For  instance, 
for  large,  square,  or  oblong  boxes,  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
outside  frame  may  be  bedded  in  the  floor  to  the  size  wanted. 
With  an  outside  frame  and  two  or  three  parallel  bars  running 
lengthwise,  and  set  to  the  length  of  bars  wanted,  and  three 
or  four  more  cross-bars  of  the  length  indicated,  a  moulder 


£ 

!  oil    ii    i!    !(0  i 

j,  li  -_!'__  X_  _'J  ! 

A 

1  

;    o                       o    ; 

1 

FIG.  5. 

T 

FIG.  6. 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTICE 


who  knows  his  work  will  make  boxes  of  this  class  to  any  size 
with  greater  ease  and  economy  than  from  a  complete  pattern. 
All  internal  bars  should  be  chamfered  on  the  lower  edges,  and 
be  kept  f  in.  or  f  in.,  as  the  case  may  be,  less  in  depth  than 
the  outside  frame  of  the  box  (see  Fig.  5). 

Again,  small  foundries,  such  as  the  one  we  have  in  mind, 
make  occasionally  a  few  columns  ;  and,  indeed,  the  capacity  of 
such  a  shop  is  ample  for  casting,  if  need  be,  two  per  day,  say 
15  ft.  long,  provided  the  weight  does  not  exceed  the  melting 
capacity  of  the  cupola.  If  the  core-stove  should  not  be  long 
enough  for  drying  a  full-length  core,  it  could  be  made 


Fid.  '•>. 


FIG.  H>. 


FIG. 


conveniently  in  two  separate  lengths,  a 
method  not  at  all  uncommon  in  jobbing 
moulding  shops. 

Fig.  7  represents  a  column  box  which 
might  be  cast  in  sections,  one  body  and  two  ends — the  three 
parts  being  fitted  together  to  make  it  Irandy  for  lengthening  if 
required.  A  column  box,  however,  is  better  cast  in  one  piece 
where  repetition  work  is  assured ;  consequently  it  becomes  a 
matter  for  decision  as  to  which  is  the  more  economical  in  the 
way  of  present  requirements  or  prospective  business.  Handles 
and  swivels  (A,  A  and  B  in  Fig.  7),  either  or  both  of  which  may 
be  used,  should  be  "  cast  on,"  or  wrought-iron  ones  may  be 
employed.  If  cast  iron  is  adopted — and  this  is,  as  a  rule,  the 
handiest  and  cheapest  way — Figs.  8  and  9  show  how  the  core- 
blocks  are  formed.  These,  when  taken  from  the  box  in  which 
they  are  rammed  up,  are  blackwashed,  dried,  and  planted  at 
A,  A,  B  (Fig.  7)  during  the  process  of  moulding.  Fig.  8,  C, 
shows  how  the  handle  pattern  should  be  cut  in  halves  for  the 
convenience  of  "drawing."  Fig.  10  is  a  sketch  of  the  box 


STAETING  A  SMALL  IEON  FOUNDEY  9 

bars,  in  moulding  which  a  set  may  be  fitted  in  the  pattern 
frame  of  the  box  at  6-in.  centres,  or  three  or  four  loose  bars 
may  be  used  and  shifted  during  the  moulding  of  the  boxes 
after  the  fashion  already  referred  to  with  the  larger  ones, 
D  is  known  as  a  stangy  bar,  and  is  made  of  flat  iron,  cast  in 
the  box,  as  shown  at  Fig.  7. 

Tub  Moulding. — Fig.  11  shows  a  moulding  "tub"  for  small 
work,  for  use  with  which  it  is  necessary  to  have  light  and 
handy  boxes.  Much  might  be  said  for  tub  moulding  as  against 
floor  moulding ;  but  as  it  is  intended  in  this  work  on  Foundry 
Practice  to  deal  with  things  in  the  most  concise  way  possible, 
it  can  only  be  referred  to  as  an  auxiliary  method  which  relieves 
the  ordinary  light  and  medium  greensand  moulding,  and 
allows  better  organisation.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  with 

a  tub  the  moulder  gets  about      

his  work  in  a  way  not  possible 

when  moulding  on  his  knees 

on  the  floor.     He  has  better 

light,  and  can  handle  himself 

and  his  work  to  much  greater 

advantage  ;    his    sands    are 

more  select,  and   the  many 

small  tools  employed  in  the 

moulding  of  this  class  of  work  are  always  within  his  reach. 

These  conditions  all  combine  to  give  better  work,  and  more  of 

it,  than  is  possible  with  the  same  class  of  work  on  the  floor. 

With  a  tub  there  should  be  boards  suitable  for  the  sizes  of 

boxes,  as  the  boxes  have  no  bars  cast  in  them  :  the  boards  are 

indispensable  for  the  handling  of  the  boxes,  thus  removing  all 

danger  of  damage  to  the  bottom  box  when  placing  it  on  the 

floor   for  pouring.      The   tub   should   be  made  of  wood,  as 

represented  in  Fig.  11,  its  length  being  anything  from  4  ft. 

upwards. 

Boxes. — Three  good  sizes  are  10  ins.  by  10  ins.  by  4  ins.  ; 
18  ins.  by  12  ins.  by  5  ins. ;  15  ins.  by  11  ins.  by  5  ins.  They 
should  be  light,  and  the  smallest  size  may  have  handles  of 
|  in.  round  iron  cast  in  them.  A  better  job,  however,  is 
made  when  the  sides  are  drilled  and  the  handles  fitted. 
These  should  be  made  to  template,  and  the  pins  turned, 


10  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTIOE 

and  all  made  interchangeable.  However,  small  boxes  of,  say, 
12  ins.  to  18  ins.  square  may  be  cast  with  bow  handles,  which, 
of  course,  are  made  with  cores,  in  the  same  way  as  the 
handles  A  A,  Fig.  7,  and  snugs  with  cast-iron  pins  cast  on  one 
half  and  snugs  with  pin  holes  on  the  other.  This  method  of 
making  a  box  does  away  with  machining  and  fitting,  and  may 
be  adapted  to  plate  moulding,  where  only  a  flat  surface  top 
part  is  required.  The  latter  type  is,  of  course,  of  special 
design. 

Cupolas  and  Melting. — It  is  generally  admitted  that  no 
branch  of  foundry  practice  is  of  more  interest  than  that 
which  belongs  to  the  cupola.  A  good  going  cupola  is  the 
backbone  of  a  foundry,  and  without  such  no  place  can  ever 
be  made  to  pay.  In  these  days  we  have  so  many  ideas  in  the 
market,  all  ostensibly  for  melting  at  the  cheapest  rate 
possible,  that  to  the  inexperienced  man  it  becomes  a  bit  of  a 
puzzle  to  know  what  to  do  for  the  best. 

It  is  a  matter  of  no  particular  moment  whether  we  regard, 
for  the  purpose  of  the  foundry  in  question,  a  cupola  with 
blast  belt  and  its  distribution  of  tuyers,  or  one  or  two 
blowing  direct  from  the  fan  as  previously  suggested.  We  have 
seen  many  fakes  of  cupola  shells,  made  from  old  boiler  shells, 
or  such  like,  that  the  cost  of  a  cupola  on  those  lines  need 
not  be  taken  too  seriously.  Indeed,  the  author  has  seen  much 
good  work  done  with  a  cupola  of  the  dimensions  of  Fig.  12,  the 
shell  of  which  had  been  made  of  such  material.  This  cupola 
was  blown  by  a  fan  of  very  primitive  type  which  had  only 
four  blades,  and  yet  such  a  contrivance  gave  out  a  blast 
pressure  of  fully  10  ins.  W.G.  through  a  6-in.  pipe.  Under 
normal  conditions  metal  came  down  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  after  blowing. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  the  present  to  go  into  the  details  of 
tuyer  belts  and  their  proper  distribution,  or  to  discuss  the  utility 
of  receivers  which  are  said  to  be  capable  of  melting  more  metal 
at  a  greater  heat  with  a  less  consumption  of  coke  than  is 
possible  with  the  old  style  of  cupola  practice.  But  the  chief 
precaution  to  be  observed  in  designing  cupolas  is  to  secure 
simplicity  of  form,  combined  with  a  capacity  for  giving  the 
greatest  possible  melt  at  the  least  possible  cost.  In  buying  a 


STARTING  A  SMALL  IRON  FOUNDRY  11 

cupola  there  is  great  need  for  care,  lest  the  unwary  be  over- 
persuaded  by  the  specialist  who  has  a  habit  of  promising  that 
he  can  melt  iron  for  next  to  nothing.  In  contracting  for  a 
cupola  it  should  be  specified  that  the  iron  melted  shall  be  of 
the  maximum  of  heat  for  the  different  moulds  common  to  the 
work  of  an  ordinary  jobbing  foundry.  If  this  be  not 
definitely  stated  at  the  outset,  buyer  and  seller  may  disagree 
in  the  end,  when  perhaps  it  is  too  late  for  the  buyer  to  obtain 
redress. 

Modern  cupolas  have  double-row  tuyers,  triple-row  tuyers 
and  serpentine  tuyers,  all  of  which  may  or  may  not  have 
receivers.  They  may  have  either  solid  or  drop  bottoms, 
any  one  of  the  patterns  being  probably  furnished  with  the 
tuyer  belt.  In  spite  of  the  many  merits  of  the  types  men- 
tioned, truth  compels  the  statement  that  not  one  of  them  is 
commendable  for  a  small  country  shop.  Greater  economy 
and  better  results  from  any  point  of  view  are  produced  by  one 
or  two  tuyers  on  a  cupola  of,  say,  24-in.  inside  diameter, 
blowing  direct  from  the  blast  pipe  into  the  cupola,  fan  and 
cupola  being  distanced  as  before  mentioned.  By  adopting 
the  "solid  bottom  "  the  cupola  upkeep  is  relatively  less  than 
is  possible  with  the  "  drop,"  and,  moreover,  the  solid  bottom 
is  comparatively  safe  against  explosions  or  disasters,  such  as 
are  too  well  known  with  the  working  of  the  drop  bottom. 
Fig.  12  represents  a  cupola  suitable  for  the  shop  we  are 
describing.  It  should  be  24  ins.  internal  diameter.  A  is  the 
brick  base  or  foundation,  which  is  solidly  built,  and  forms  the 
bottom  hearth,  where  the  shell  of  the  cupola  is  planted. 
B  is  the  cleaning-out  door,  which  must  be  made  of  suitable 
dimensions  to  allow  the  cupola  man  easy  ingress  for  the 
purpose  of  chipping  and  fettling  the  lining,  etc.  This  door 
ought  to  be  on  the  outside  of  the  cupola,  for  thereby  is 
avoided  much  of  the  inconvenience  experienced  with  some  old 
types  that  have  to  be  drawn  or  cleaned  from  the  inside  of  the 
foundry  at  the  end  of  the  day's  cast.  C  is  the  tapping  hole. 
D  are  the  tuyers.  There  may  be  two,  but  one  is  sufficient  to 
supply  the  blast  for  a  cupola  of  this  size.  E  is  the  charging 
door,  and  F  the  platform.  The  outside  diameter  of  the  malle- 
able shell  may  be  determined  by  the  thickness  of  lining — that 


12 


FACTS   ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


Gcwtslron 

~ 


~wte  Iron 


is,  whether  there  are  to  be  two  rows  of  4-in.  or  5-in.  bricks  or 
only  one.  Although,  one  row  of  brick  is  quite  common  in 
cupolas  of  this  size,  a  lining  two  bricks  thick  will  prolong 
the  life  of  the  cupola  shell  considerably.  Again,  when 
melting,  if  we  want  a  better  mixing  than  can  be  got  by  direct 
tapping  into  the  ladles  that  are  in  use  during  the  cast,  the 
metal  may  be  tapped  into  a  shank  ladle,  from  which  small 

ladles  can  be  supplied  through- 
|  out  the  heat.      This  will  mix 

metal  better  than  is  possible 
with  the  dribbling  motion  of 
melted  metal,  passing  from  the 
cupola  to  its  receiver  whereso- 
ever the  latter  may  be  employed. 
The  objection  may  be  raised 
that  Fig.  12  illustrates  a 
type  which  represents  neither 
modern  American  nor  German 
methods,  nor  up-to-date  British 
practice.  Drop  bottoms  have 
many  admirers,  but  those  with 
the  longest  experience  are  not 
likely  to  put  a  drop  bottom  in 
the  place  of  a  solid  one  ;  and, 
indeed,  we  have  seen  the 
"  drop"  displaced  by  the  solid, 
and  the  change  was  always 
followed  by  satisfactory  results. 
The  height  of  the  cupola  is 
not  given,  because  this  will  be  determined  by  the  circumstances 
of  the  situation,  as  it  concerns  the  safeguarding  of  the  roof  and 
adjacent  buildings  from  fire. 

Before  commencing  to  charge  with  iron,  we  should  be 
satisfied  that  the  coke  in  the  hearth,  which  at  this  time  should 
form  the  bed  complete,  is  kindled  above  the  tuyers,  otherwise 
the  delay  of  melting  our  first  charge  will  be  serious — that  is  to 
say,  if  the  blast  be  turned  on  before  the  requisite  height  of 
flame  from  the  bottom  bed  of  coke  be  attained.  When  satis- 
fied that  the  cupola  is  properly  kindled  we  begin  to  charge, 


cwtslron 


IP 


FIG.  12. 


STARTING   A   SMALL   IRON  FOUNDRY  13 

and  following  the  instructions  as  herein  given,  any  one 
should  be  able  to  do  it. 

Ordinary  care  must  be  exercised  with  the  quantities 
stipulated,  and  attention  paid  to  the  levelling  of  the  charges  of 
coke  and  iron  throughout  the  process  of  charging  and  melting. 
The  furnace  man  should  see  that  the  coke  is  of  medium  size 
and  also  have  the  pigs  broken  in  six  pieces,  and  make  sure 
that  the  scrap  is  of  proportionate  bulk  also.  Attention 
to  those  points  minimises  the  chances  of  "  bunging,"  or 
retarding  in  any  way  the  melting  ratio  of  the  cupola.  Three 
or  four  pounds  of  limestone,  or  some  such  flux,  to  every  second 
or  third  charge  will  improve  the  metal  and  assist  in  fluxing 
or  washing  down,  as  it  were,  the  sides  of  the  cupola,  which  in 
turn  facilitates  the  process  of  raking  out  the  cupola  at  the 
end  of  the  melt;  but,  of  course,  the  chief  work  of  a  flux  is  to 
judiciously  cleanse  the  metal  of  its  impurities. 

Moulding  and  Fettling. — These  are  matters  of  shop  practice 
which  call  for  much  care  in  discipline  and  organisation. 
Suffice  it  to  state  that  both  must  be  attended  to  with 
discretion,  so  as  to  get  good  and  economical  work  done,  and 
experience  has  often  shown  that  the  lowest-paid  is  the 
costliest  man  when  output  and  not  wages  are  compared. 

In  selecting  a  moulder  as  working  foreman,  see  that  he  is 
a  thoroughly  practical  man  who  has  his  practice  backed  up 
by  sound  theoretical  knowledge.  Such  a  man  is  far  better 
qualified  to  work  any  place,  whether  large  or  small,  than  one 
who  relies  on  chance  and  physical  force  to  pull  him  through. 
The  day  has  passed  for  the  man  who  knows  only  how  to  dig 
holes,  pound  sand,  finish  moulds  and  cast,  and  who  leaves  the 
rest  to  chance.  Indeed,  in  order  to  work  successfully  any  con- 
cern, a  man  must  be  capable  of  seeing  at  least  the  bulk  of  his 
work  done  before  it  is  commenced,  otherwise  he  cannot  be  said 
to  have  the  necessary  ability  to  lead  men  through  the  many 
perplexities  of  an  ordinary  jobbing  foundry.  Organisation, 
discipline,  method  and  diligence,  with  respect  for  superiors 
and  inferiors,  ought  to  be  the  guiding  principles  of  any  man 
responsible  for  the  working  of  a  foundry,  if  he  is  to  make 
it  pay. 


14  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

MOULDING  SANDS 

The  material  known  as  moulding  sand  is  so  widely 
employed  for  moulding  purposes  that  it  is  essential  that  suit- 
able sand  should  be  obtained  wherever  the  craft  of  moulding 
is  practiced.  In  some  localities  there  are  abundant  natural 
supplies  of  material  quite  suitable ;  in  others  not  so  highly 
favoured  in  this  respect  the  material  must  be  adapted  to  suit 
the  moulder's  requirements  or  procured  from  elsewhere.  The 
following  is  intended  to  give  an  outline  of  what  should  con- 
stitute good  moulding  sand,  so  that  the  practical  man  may 
compound  the  constituents  for  himself  whether  the  material 
be  required  for  core-making,  in  all  its  varied  forms,  or  for 
moulding. 

At  the  outset  it  may  be  said  that  uniform  practice  is 
impossible,  for  every  locality  is  more  or  less  governed  by  local 
conditions,  namely,  the  character  of  the  work  to  be  done  and 
the  material  available.  In  one  locality  there  may  be  found 
sand  having  too  much  clay,  causing  it  to  be  too  plastic,  while 
in  another  may  be  found  a  sand  which  is  poor  in  plastic 
matter,  but  which  is  gritty  and  porous  ;  and,  while  neither  of 
the  two  is  suitable  for  moulding  by  itself,  probably  equal  parts 
of  each  would  make  a  first-class  sand. 

The  chemical  analyses  are  very  varied.  Moulding  sand  is 
composed  of  silica,  aluminium  silicate,  and  oxides  of  iron  and 
other  elements.  Sands  are  analysed  for  (1)  alumina,  (2)  free 
silica,  (3)  loss  on  ignition.  Alumina  represents  strength  and 
wearing  qualities,  free  silica  openness  or  porosity,  and  loss  on 
ignition  the  moisture  and  vegetable  matter.  Lime  and  mag- 
nesia are  usually  present  in  such  small  quantities  that  they 
may  be  disregarded.  Sands,  however,  cannot  solely  be  judged 
on  chemical  analyses,  since  one  having  the  proportions  of 
constituents  considered  suitable  may  still  be  without  the  grit 
and  consistency  necessary  for  moulding. 

Green-Sand. — There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  sand 
moulding,  namely,  green-sand  moulding  and  dry-sand 
moulding.  Each  method  requires  a  sand  possessing  special 
properties.  Green-sand  must  be  of  a  light  and  soft  earthy 
nature,  velvety  and  fine  in  texture,  and  when  gripped  tightly 


MOULDING  SANDS  15 

with  the  hand  should  retain  the  impression  so  given  to  it. 
Such  a  sand  usually  carries  a  large  percentage  of  water  with 
safety.  It  is  rich  in  organic  matter,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
precluded  from  being  baked,  or  dried  in  the  stove  in  the  form 
of  dry-sand  moulds.  Heat  renders  it  useless  for  "  dry-sand  " 
moulding  purposes,  hence  its  name  "  green-sand." 

Dry-Sand. — The  term  employed  here  denotes  a  sand  free 
from  water  or  moisture  of  any  kind.  However,  before  we  can 
get  the  mould  in  its  final  state,  that  is,  after  it  has  been  dried 
in  the  stove,  we  must  make  this  same  mould  with  sand  of  the 
consistency  of  green-sand.  Here  the  term  "  consistency  "  has 
a  limited  meaning,  for  dry-sand  moulds  are  composed  of  rock- 
sand  as  a  basis.  This  rock-sand  is  derived  from  the  sand- 
stone of  the  geologist.  In  sandstone  the  grains  of  sand  are 
bound  together  by  some  cementing  material,  and  it  is  the 
nature  of  this  cementing  material  which  determines  its  value 
for  dry-sand  moulding,  enabling  the  mould  to  withstand  the 
action  of  heat.  Often  a  sandstone  in  a  rotten  state,  useless 
for  building  purposes,  is  all  the  better  for  the  foundry ;  while 
in  other  places  the  sandstone  blasted  from  the  quarries, 
and  milled,  proves  a  stronger  sand  for  dry-sand  moulding 
than  that  found  in  a  comparatively  broken  and  disintegrated 
condition. 

We  thus  see  that  the  chief  characteristics  which  divide 
green-sand  from  dry-sand,  and  vice  versa,  are  : — (1)  Green-sand 
is  earthy  and  comparatively  full  of  organic  matter,  which 
assists  venting,  but,  as  a  natural  consequence,  is  only 
nominally  refractory,  and  not  at  all  suited  to  resist  much 
heat.  (2)  Dry-sand  is  refractory,  glutinous,  and  plastic,  and 
so  tends  to  prevent  venting,  and  makes  drying  an  absolute 
necessity,  thereby  making  the  work  more  costly.  This  addi- 
tional cost,  however,  is  compensated  for  by  superior  castings, 
and  in  many  cases  dry-sand  castings  are  not  inferior  to  those 
that  are  done  in  loam. 

Our  next  duty  is  to  discuss  the  compounding  or  mixing  of 
the  respective  facing  sands  for  these  two  divisions  of  sand 
moulding.  On  this  point  moulders  have  many  conservatisms, 
judging  the  nature  of  sands  by  their  colour,  and  although 
often  excelling  themselves  in  this  respect,  quite  forget  that 


16  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

the  fundamental  properties  of  moulding  sands  are  plasticity  for 
binding  and  porosity  for  venting. 

Light  Green-Sand  Facing  Sand. — In  mixing  sand  for  light 
work,  whether  for  bench,  tub,  or  floor,  rock-sand  ought  to  be 
avoided,  its  grittiness  of  texture  making  it  badly  suited  for  this 
class  of  work.  Light  work,  not  being  exposed  to  an  excessive 
heat  from  the  metal,  does  well  with  an  earthy  and  velvety 
sand.  Therefore,  the  sand  used  should  be  able  to  pass 
with  comparative  ease  through  a  No.  12  or  16-mesh  sieve  at  a 
dampness  suitable  for  moulding.  Where  Belfast  and  London 
sands  are  procurable,  these  in  equal  parts  make  a  capital 
mixture  with  the  requisite  percentage  of  coal-dust.  Belfast 
sand  by  itself  produces  the  finest  impression,  with  work  of 
superior  architectural  design,  and  is  an  excellent  sand  for 
light  brass  moulding  in  general.  The  proportions  between 
new  sand  and  old,  or  black-sand,  must  be  left  to  individual 
circumstances,  as  also  must  the  proportion  of  coal-dust  in  the 
batch.  This  latter  ingredient  must  be  controlled  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  new  and  old  sands,  as  well  as  by  the  lightness 
or  heaviness  of  the  metal. 

The  standard  of  consistency  can  only  be  gauged  by 
practice,  and  even  one  uniform  standard  of  consistency 
will  not  suit  all  kinds  of  work,  for  occasionally  work  with 
peculiarities  of  its  own  have  to  be  faced  and  mastered.  For 
instance,  in  moulding  a  small-tooth  wheel,  using  as  a  pattern 
an  old  casting  in  which  there  are  many  irregularities,  such  as 
broken  and  twisted,  worn  and  swollen  teeth,  irrespective  of 
other  parts  of  the  wheel,  the  facing  sand  for  the  teeth  should 
be  made  unusually  damp  and  a  little  flour  added  to  toughen 
and  give  fibre  to  the  sand,  so  as  to  prevent  the  teeth  from 
wasting  themselves  in  the  operation  of  drawing  the  pattern 
from  the  sand.  In  ramming  this  extra  damp  sand,  more 
than  usual  care  must  be  taken  while  tucking  up  the  teeth, 
so  as  to  prevent  clogging,  and  when  the  mould  is  finished  it 
must  be  at  least  skin  dried  before  casting. 

Heavy  and  Medium  Green-Sand  Facing  Sand. — It  is  not  in 
keeping  with  good  practice  to  have  sands  for  both  classes  in 
an  ordinary  jobbing  shop.  Jobbing  shops  having  heavy  and 
medium  green-sand  work,  generally  keep  as  their  standard  a 


MOULDING  SANDS  17 

medium  mixture,  and  when  a  lighter  or  heavier  grade  of 
sand  is  required,  weaken  or  strengthen  it  accordingly  ;  the 
terms  "light"  and  "heavy"  indicating  section  of  metal  the  jobs 
contain.  For  this  standard  medium  mixture  we  take,  say, 
three  parts  of  new  sand  to  one  of  coal-dust.  The  new  sand 
may  be  reckoned  as  equal  parts  of  London,  Belfast,  and 
Scotch  rock  or  freestone  sand,  or  sands  of  similar  grit. 
These  three  sands  give  a  very  desirable  gradation  of  the 
essential  properties  dividing  green-sand  from  dry-sand,  the 
London  sand  being  intermediate  between  the  other  two,  and 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  useful  combination  of 
sands  for  green -sand  moulding  in  general.  These  again  are 
reduced  by  black-sand  according  to  our  habits  of  practice. 
The  foregoing  is  at  best  an  approximation,  because  sands  vary 
so  much  both  chemically  and  physically  that  nothing  but  a 
mere  rule-of-thumb  system  of  mixing  facing  sands  has  as  yet 
found  its  way  into  foundry  practice. 

Having  dealt  briefly  with  medium  sand,  we  next  consider 
sand  most  suitable  for  heavy  castings,  or  sand  having  unusu- 
ally thick  metal  to  contend  with.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that 
a  sand  for  such  thicknesses  of  metal  should  be  specifically 
lighter  than  that  required  for  light  castings,  and  for  general 
purposes  also.  Now,  suppose  we  take  as  a  basis  the  medium 
mixture  as  made  up,  we  should  then  be  perfectly  safe,  for  the 
main  feature  of  sand  for  heavy  metal  green-sand  moulding  is 
porosity  within  certain  limits  so  as  to  secure  contour  and 
normal  "  graininess  "  of  surface,  factors  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  preventing  scabbing.  This  class  of  work  is 
usually  open,  with  easy  access  to  all  parts,  and  as  a  matter  of 
fact  there  is  no  difficulty,  if  it  be  desired,  in  rubbing  up  such 
moulds  with  plumbago,  and  so  turning  out  a  very  superior 
heavy  green-sand  casting.  Indeed,  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to 
see  green-sand  work,  which  has  been  thus  treated,  with  an 
appearance  not  inferior  to  some  dry-sand  castings.  So  much  has 
this  been  the  case  in  the  author's  experience,  that  he  has  had 
the  question  put  as  to  whether  such  and  such  were  green  or  dry- 
sand  castings ;  and  this,  indeed,  without  any  "  skin  drying." 
Hence,  to  increase  this  porosity,  we  weaken  the  sand  by  the 
addition  of  "sharp"  or  "  river"  sand,  and  increase  the  coal-dust 

F.P.  c 


18  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

considerably,  the  last  substance  of  all  the  materials  known  to 
the  writer  being,  when  discriminately  used,  the  best  guarantee 
against  scabbing.  This  sand  answers  its  purpose  best  on  side 
and  bottom  surfaces,  but  is  not  recommended  for  tops. 

However,  it  must  be  strictly  observed  that  in  "weakening" 
green-sand  facing  sand  by  "sharp-sand"  we  are  in  no  way 
reducing  its  refractoriness,  but  rather  increasing  it.  Never- 
theless, "weakening  "  by  a  large  proportion  of  Belfast  or  such 
organic  sand  would,  owing  to  the  continuous  flow  of  metal 
such  as  we  have  through  the  arms  of  a  large  spur  wheel,  in  a 
"green-sand"  mould  be  liable  to  lead  to  scabbing.  Belfast 
sand,  not  having  the  refractoriness  common  to  most  mould- 
ing sands,  would  give  way  under  the  flow  of  the  molten  metal 
at  the  time  of  pouring ;  here  again  we  see  the  necessity  for 
limiting  the  use  of  this  sand  to  light  castings. 

To  return  more  definitely  to  the  function  of  coal-dust 
and  sharp-sand  as  preventives  for  scabbing  in  heavy  green - 
sand  castings,  sharp-sand  increases  porosity,  while  coal-dust 
absorbs  alumina  and  clayey  water,  thus  reducing  the  generation 
of  steam  and  expediting  venting.  The  only  other  advice  the 
writer  can  give  from  practical  experience  is  to  work  the  sand 
as  dry  as  is  compatible  with  safety  of  moulding. 

One  very  important  feature  of  heavy  green-sand  moulding 
is  to  keep  the  sand  from  baking.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  to  their  lowest  limits  those  substances  which  increase 
plasticity,  such  as  alumina,  clayey  material  of  any  kind, 
and  water.  Sand  that  has  to  be  subjected  to  the  heat  of 
fluid  metal  must  get  rid  of  its  moisture  first,  otherwise  the 
pores  of  the  sand  and  vents  of  the  mould  become  over- 
loaded with  steam  instead  of  gas,  and  much  mischief  may 
result.  To  sum  up,  the  factors  for  success  in  heavy  green- 
sand  moulding  are  porosity,  consistency,  and  intelligence  in 
ramming,  venting  and  finishing. 

Slitting  of  Green-Sand  Facing  Sand.  —  Some  consider  this 
to  be  of  extreme  value ;  in  the  author's  opinion  it  has  its  limits. 
A  sand  that  is  milled  must  at  all  times  be  more  dense,  and 
as  a  consequence  its  venting  power  is  diminished.  But  in 
the  case  of  a  sand  for  moulding  teeth,  and  other  fine  castings 
of  elaborate  design,  milling  is  an- advantage,  and  assuming 


MOULDING  SANDS  19 

the  teeth,  as  in  spur  wheels,  to  be  in  the  vertical  position 
while  casting,  milled  sand  has  the  double  advantage  of  adding 
strength  to  the  teeth  while  drawing  the  pattern,  and  giving 
better  contour  to  the  teeth  when  moulded,  which  result  in  a 
superior  casting. 

Sand  for  gear  wheels  is  greatly  improved  by  adding  a  small 
percentage  of  core-gum  to  the  batch  ;  core-gum  is  not  less 
than  three  times  as  strong  as  flour,  and  when  baked  by  drying 
,the  teeth  become  as  good,  if  not  superior,  to  a  dry-sand  spur 
wheel  casting.  Teeth  made  from  this  sand  can  stand  any 
amount  of  drying,  and  may  be  made  as  hard  as  a  bone 
without  fear  of  injuring  them  in  any  way.  They  are  also 
entirely  free  from  swelling,  an  evil  which  frequently  happens 
to  green -sand  moulded  teeth  without  drying. 

Coal-Dust. — This  is  an  adjunct  in  the  mixing  of  green-sand 
facing  sand,  which  is  likely  at  all  times  to  play  an  important 
part  in  green-sand  moulding.  Its  normal  function  is  to  assist 
in  skinning  this  class  of  work;  abnormally  it  hardens  the 
metal  and  for  this  reason  is  frequently  resorted  to  when  a  hard 
skin  is  imperative.  But  its  use  must  not  be  overdone,  or  we 
run  much  risk  of  pock-pitting  the  "  skin,"  and  thus  making 
a  faulty  casting. 

In  selecting  suitable  coal  to  grind  into  dust,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  know  the  proper  quality,  as  a  coal 
of  a  luminous  standard  carries  too  much  pitchy  or  tarry 
substances  and  is  sure  to  produce  bad  effects,  which  will 
show  themselves  on  the  surface  of  the  casting  in  a  somewhat 
honeycombed  design,  which,  although  of  trifling  depth,  is 
very  objectionable  indeed.  The  most  suitable  coal  to  mill 
or  grind  for  coal-dust  is  that  of  the  non-bituminous  order. 
This  is  a  coal  which  does  not  give  much  flame,  but  is  very 
rich  in  carbon,  sometimes  containing  about  90  per  cent,  of 
that  element. 

Founders  have  many  uncertainties  to  contend  with  in 
their  daily  routine,  and  doubtless  to  this  is  due  the  cry  for 
analytical  scrutiny  of  materials.  The  fixing  of  a  standard 
quality  in  coal-dust,  or  a  knowledge  of  its  real  value,  for  the 
purpose  intended,  would  be  of  great  benefit  in  the  production 
of  green -sand  castings,  where  it  has  to  play  such  an  important 

c  2 


20  FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

part.  Genuine  coal-dust  from  suitable  coal,  which  was  at 
one  time  regarded  as  waste,  is  now  treated  for  the  produc- 
tion of  by-products  so  as  to  satisfy  the  craving  for  economy 
in  some  other  industry.  Hence,  what  comes  on  the  market 
as  "  coal-dust  for  foundries  "  is  often  nothing  short  of  rubbish 
swept  from  the  bottom  of  coal  mines  and  such  like.  This 
sort  of  coal-dust  is  largely  composed  of  clay  and  other  non- 
carbonaceous  matter.  Therefore,  if  good  work,  as  it  relates 
to  this  material,  is  to  be  maintained,  then  the  eye  of  the 
chemist  on  this  department  is  of  considerable  importance  to 
the  founder  of  green-sand  castings,  both  light  and  heavy.  All 
foundries  which  grind  their  own  coal-dust  are  in  the  long  run 
supplied  in  the  safest  and  most  economical  manner.  Of 
course  the  same  may  be  said  of  blacking,  but  we  have  never 
found  it  so  in  our  experience. 

Black-Sand. — This  sand  is  at  all  times  of  doubtful  com- 
position, but  wherever  possible  it  should  be  taken  from  a  floor 
exclusively  kept  for  the  production  of  green-sand  castings. 
As  a  case  in  point,  take  that  of  a  floor  in  a  jobbing  foundry 
casting  green  and  dry-sand  work  alternately.  On  changing 
from  green-sand  to  dry-sand,  the  addition  of  a  large  amount 
of  clay  water  in  what  was  formerly  green -sand  has  become 
absolutely  necessary.  This,  together  with  the  dry -sand  facing 
in  the  moulding  of  a  job  under  such  conditions,  as  also  the 
drying  of  the  job  in  the  floor,  makes  the  destruction  of  carbon 
formerly  contained  in  this  green-sand  floor  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent  a  moral  certainty.  The  carbon  it  contained 
previously  has  been  replaced  by  alumina,  etc.  Consequently 
no  good  result  could  attend  the  casting  of  a  mould  made 
with  such  sand  unless  it  had  been  dried. 

It  might  be  said  that  clay  destroys  the  effect  of  carbon,  and 
coal-dust  can  in  turn  destroy  the  effect  of  clay.  This  to  a 
certain  extent  is  true,  but  at  the  same  time  wherever  dry-sand 
and  green-sand  work  is  intermittent  on  the  same  floor  space, 
the  green-sand  work  suffers  most,  and  before  a  green-sand  floor 
thus  treated  can  return  to  its  normal  condition  time  and 
special  treatment  must  be  resorted  to,  clearly  showing  that 
much  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  black-sand  from 
the  floor  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  green-sand  facing  sands, 


OF  "HE 

UNlVtRS  TY 


. 

light,  m£teftgflind  heavy,  but  most  especially  for  work  of 
the  finer  type  of  castings. 

Black-sand  for  dry-sand  work  has  but  little  in  common  with 
black-sand  for  green-sand  work.  In  a  word,  the  relationship 
is  as  far  removed  as  the  one  facing  sand  is  from  the  other. 

Dry  -Sand  Facing  Sand.  —  The  essential  property,  as  already 
mentioned,  is  plasticity  together  with  pile  or  grit,  and  every 
sand  to  be  used  for  dry-sand  moulding  must  be  satisfactory  in 
this  respect.  A  sand  of  this  description  is  at  once  refractory 
and  capable  of  withstanding  all  drying  or  baking  common  to 
dry-sand  moulding.  Moulds  made  from  such  a  sand  and 
rightly  rammed  produce  castings  free  from  swollen  or  objec- 
tionable protrusions  of  any  kind,  even  where  excessive  static 
pressure  is  exerted. 

Where  circumstances  are  unfavourable  for  obtaining  a 
glutinous  rock-sand,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  compounding  or 
mixing  with  some  sort  of  clay  wash,  glucose,  or  such  like. 
.These  in  some  way  make  up  for  natural  poverty  of  cohesive- 
ness  and  plasticity  of  some  rock-sands. 

Although  rock-sand  may  be  the  basis  of  all  dry-  sand,  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  that  facing  sand  should  be  made 
from  if  entirely.  .  Some  localities  have  easier  access  to  river- 
sand  than  they  have  to  rock-sand,  and  in  this  way  they 
substitute  loam  for  the  mixing  of  dry-sand  with  good  effect. 
Wherever  the  former  can  be  got  no  inconvenience  from  any 
point  of  view  need  be  experienced,  as  with  this  material  for 
mixing  with  the  ordinary  black-sand  we  secure  the  better 
article  for  dry-sand  moulding.  Loam  ground  or  milled  from 
river-sand,  with  the  amount  of  clay  added,  which  is  at  all 
times  a  variable  quantity,  should  be  within  the  reach  of  the 
man  mixing  and  milling,  wherever  such  is  in  operation. 

As  to  the  economical  view  of  the  question  we  say,  in  a 
word,  that  it  is  really  bound  up  in  the  process  of  milling. 
It  is  surprising  that  in  this  advanced  age  of  foundry  equip- 
ment there  are  many  foundries  doing  a  considerable  business 
in  dry-sand  moulding,  that  are  still  working  away  under  the 
old  condition  of  things  as  they  were  in  operation  fifty  years 
ago.  In  this  they  are  awkwardly  working  by  tramping  with 
the  feet,  hashing,  and  laboriously  mixing  that  which,  if  milled, 


22  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

could  be  done  in  an  infmitesimally  short  space  of  time  when 
compared  with  the  antiquated  practice  of  mixing  sand  and 
loam  in  the  foundry.  While  there  may  be  strictures  applicable 
to  the  milling  of  green-sand  facing  sand,  practically  there 
can  be  none  with  dry-sand.  Sand  that  is  milled  is  better 
prepared  for  ramming,  finishing,  venting,  and  is  always 
superior  to  hand-mixed  sand  for  chapletting,  and  in  every 
way  makes  a  stronger  mould,  a  feature  of  much  importance 
in  dry-sand. 

Again,  there  is  much  first-class  dry-sand  facing,  made  from 
loam-work  "  offal,"  secured  from  the  emptying  of  loam  castings, 
and  with  a  supply  of  this  material,  and  without  rock-sand 
altogether,  one  need  have  no  dread  of  getting  an  inferior 
sand.  Of  course,  this  by  itself  is  generally  too  strong,  there- 
fore it  becomes  a  matter  for  the  man  in  charge  to  direct  the 
proportions  between  black-sand  and  this  loam-offal.  The 
utilisation  of  this  material  is  probably  one  of  the  most  positive 
foundry  economies  with  which  we  come  in  contact  every  day. 
For  where  no  milling  of  sand  is  done  this  refuse  or  offal  is 
usually  foolishly  consigned  to  the  "  dirt-heap." 

It  is  astonishing  how  some  very  poor  sands  are  improved 
by  milling,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  whether  mineral  or  vegetable, 
everything  rolled,  pounded,  hammered,  or  kneaded,  is 
toughened  thereby.  Thus  it  is  that  sand  passing  under  the 
rollers  in  milling  becomes  so  improved  that  it  more  than 
compensates  in  a  comparatively  short  time  for  the  expense 
of  purchasing  a  mill. 

Two  or  three  shovelfuls  of  rock-sand  added  to  a  barrowful 
of  good  black-sand,  and  milled,  will  make  an  average  facing 
sand  ;  but  without  milling,  the  rock-sand  here  would  require 
to  be  more  than  doubled.  Where  no  rock-sand  is  used, 
two  shovelfuls  of  loam  is  ample  for  a  similar  quantity  of 
black-sand.  The  loam  for  this  sand  is  very  strong  and  stiff, 
arid  is  made  from  river  or  iron  gravelly  sands  passed  through 
a  f-in.  mesh  riddle.  In  some  cases  those  sands  have  abun- 
dance of  clay  in  themselves,  others  require  to  be  helped  in 
this  matter,  but  in  any  case  the  loam  should  be  gritty 
and  plastic. 

In  summarising  these  details  of  moulding  sands  and  facing 


MOULDING  OANDS  23 

sands  for  iron  founding,  they  may  after  all  |be  at  best  ambi- 
guous, especially  when  viewed  from  a  theoretical  standpoint 
alone,  for  practice  has  but  poorly  rewarded  labour  expended 
in  theory.  It  must  be  admitted  that  chemical  analyses  have 
not  completely  solved  the  problem  of  determining  what  sands 
are  suitable  for  moulding.  Many  sands  from  the  chief  centres 
of  supply  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  the  same  geological  age 
and  possessing  very  similar  composition  behave  quite  differently 
in  the  foundry. 

The  foregoing  shows  that  experience  born  of  long  and 
constant  observation  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  educating 
a  man  in  the  selecting  of  suitable  moulding  sands  and  com- 
pounding or  mixing  them  for  facing  sands  to  supply  the 
variety  of  needs  in  the  different  branches  and  grades  of  iron 
founding,  or  other  branches  of  founding. 

"  Grip  "  and  ''break''  are  the  physical  features  or  tests 
whicli  are  used  in  practice.  And  to  the  man  who  under- 
stands his  business  properly  in  this  respect  it  has  been  said 
that  his  sense  of  touch  is  of  more  value  than  his  sense 
of  sight.  It  is  simply  a  physical  test  that  fixes  the  dividing 
line  between  green-sand  and  dry-sand  moulding  sands.  Green- 
sand,  as  has  been  said  before,  must  have  a  velvety  grip,  and  be 
capable  of  receiving  considerable  water  without  showing  much 
inclination  to  become  plastic.  Dry-sand  must  be  strong 
and  gritty,  within  certain  limits,  and  highly  refractory — the 
exact  opposite  to  green-sand — and  on  receiving  an  excess  of 
water  should  become  plastic.  These  two  sands  in  their 
respective  natures  are  the  sands  practically  from  which  all 
facing  sands  are  compounded  or  mixed,  for  the  many  varieties 
of  work  in  either  green  or  dry-sand  moulding. 

LOCATION  OF   IMPUEITIES 

How  annoying  in  many  instances  is  a  want  of  knowing  how 
to  deal  with  dirt,  sullage,  kish,  or  any  other  substance  that 
may  be  called  in  this  sense  an  impurity,  goes  without  saying, 
and  how  doubly  annoying  it  becomes  when  it  is  found  that  if 
the  casting  in  question  had  been  cast  in  the  right  position — cr 
shall  we  say  "  face  down  ?  " — all  would  have  been  well ! 


24 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 


} 


I  daresay,  on  reflection,  something  like  the  above  is  the 
experience  of  most  moulders  who  have  had  much  to  do 
in  casting  machine,  tool,  or  polished  work.  The  result  of  an 
incorrect  method  of  casting  is  every  now  and  then  manifested 
by  some  unforeseen  failure,  which  is  frequently  attributed  to 
dirty  iron.  But  not  infrequently  these  losses  are  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  instructions  given  to  the  foundry  regarding 
those  parts  to  be  polished  are  insufficient  to  enable  the 
moulder  to  locate  the  impurities  common  to  cast  iron  so 
that  they  shall  have  no  harmful  effect. 

When  a  responsible  foundryman  views  a  pattern  for  the 
first  time,  and  if  no  special  instructions  be  given  as  to  casting, 

his  first  and  last  con- 
cern is  the  quickest 
way  to  mould  it,  and 
should  everything  to 
outward  appearance 
turn  out  well  he  has 
every  cause  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  re- 
sult ;  but,  alas !  by  the 
process  of  machining 
it  may  turn  out  a 
failure. 

'  In  Fig.  13  we  have 
a  polished  surface, 

and  its  sides  are  machined  right  round  also.  The  quickest  way 
to  mould  this  casting,  assuming  it  to  be  a  complete  pattern,  is 
by  top  and  bottom  boxes,  or,  if  preferable,  call  them  cope  and 
drag  ;  and  in  the  absence  of  specified  instructions,  the  chances 
are  that  not  one  in  a  hundred  moulders  would  ever  think  of 
casting  it  in  any  other  position  than  that  of  the  plain  face 
upwards.  Therefore,  assuming  this  to  be  the  case,  the  likeli- 
hood of  the  face  turning  out  as  desired,  that  is  to  say, 
perfectly  clean,  would  as  likely  as  not  be  nil  or  at  best  it 
would  be  speckled,  and  in  some  cases  hopelessly  lost;  but 
with  "face  down,"  all  this  disappears,  and  under  normal 
conditions,  as  shown  at  Fig.  14,  that  which  is  deleterious  to 
polished  metal  will  float  up  amongst  the  ribs  or  stays  of 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  14. 


LOCATION  OF  IMPUEITIES  25 

the    casting    and    become   harmlessly  incorporated  amongst 
the  unpolished  parts. 

True,  this  way  of  moulding  considerably  increases  the  cost 
of  production  ;  but  where  a  clean-faced  casting  is  paramount 
to  all  other  considerations,  there  is  no  choice  but  to  adopt  it. 
And  lastly,  on  this  job  it  will  be  obvious  that  no  matter 
whether  the  plain  face  or  ribs  be  cast  uppermost,  the  sides 
always  remain  in  the  vertical  position,  considered  by  many 
the  ideal  position  to  secure  the  cleanest  of  metal  castings. 

Fig.  15  shows  a  cylindrical  section,  having  a  small  pro- 
jection A  on  the  top  side,  which  forms  a  receptacle  for  those 
impurities  which  rise  to  the  highest  part  of  the  casting  at 
time  of  pouring ;  and  wherever 
part  of  a  column,  pipe,  or  such 
like,  cast  in  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion, has  to  be  turned,  a  receptacle 
thus  formed  to  locate  dirt  outside 
the  casting  proper  will  more  than 
likely  produce  a  good  casting, 
which  otherwise  might  have  been 
a  failure.  But  were  such  cast  on 
end,  no  such  thing  would  be 
necessary,  because  its  place  would 
be  taken  by  the  "  sinking  head  " 
which  is  necessary  in  the  pour- 
ing  of  all  vertical  castings,  and 

whose  capacity  for  dirt  and  feeding  purposes  is  varied  according 
to  circumstances. 

Instances  of  this  class  of  work  could  be  multiplied  by  the 
score,  but  the  examples  given  should  establish  a  principle 
in  foundry  practice,  that  the  location  of  impurities  should  be 
confined  to  the  unpolished  parts  of  castings,  etc.,  and  if  need 
be  by  the  aid  of  suitable  projections  that  can  be  removed  by 
hammer  and  chisel  or  machine,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Thus  far,  so  good,  for  the  foundry  ;  but  what  of  the  pattern 
shop's  responsibility  in  those  matters  ?  And  here  let  me  say 
that  I  make  no  specific  charge  against  the  pattern  shop,  further 
than  by  saying  that  there  is  a  great  want  of  a  recognised 
principle  in  giving  instructions  in  foundry  work.  In  ordinary 


26  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

disciplined  engineering  works,  all  instructions  necessary  are 
attached  to  drawings,  and  where  blue  prints  are  much  in 
evidence,  we  usually  find  the  following  phrase  : — "  Where 
marked  red  to  be  machined,"  or  some  such  instruction,  but 
the  very  place  where  this  is  most  necessary,  namely,  the 
foundry,  we  usually  find  nothing,  and  if  the  person  in  charge 
does  not  make  some  enquiry  before  bedding  or  ramming  up, 
much  of  the  work  belonging  to  many  of  our  jobbing  foundries 
would  be  lost  through  being  moulded  and  cast  in  the  wrong 
position.  Some  engineers  and  founders  have  a  very  excellent 
style  of  painting  their  patterns.  The  general  body  may  be 
any  colour,  but  is  usually  a  dark  red,  but  no  matter  what  the 
body  may  be,  cored  parts  are  painted  black,  and  those  parts  of 
the  casting  to  be  finished  always  shine  out  with  a  bright  red 
colour,  indicating,  of  course,  that  more  than  ordinary  care 
for  a  clean  metal  face  is  necessary.  The  value  of  these 
practices  must  be  obvious,  since  it  is  a  fact  that  moulders  as  a 
class  of  mechanics  know  nothing  of  detail  work,  as  a  rule, 
further  than  their  pattern  or  model  gives,  combined  with 
such  information  their  foreman  may  have  to  give  them. 
Hence  the  practice  of  varying  the  colours  in  painting 
patterns,  wherever  observed,  must  have  its  advantages, 
inasmuch  as  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  loss  to  the 
engineer,  by  the  time  spent  on  a  bad  casting  due  to  dirt,  is  as 
great,  nay,  sometimes  greater,  than  the  loss  is  to  the  founder, 
and  which,  probably,  might  have  been  no  loss  to  either,  if 
position  for  location  of  impurities  had  been  attended  to. 
Evidently  the  foregoing  can  only  refer  to  standard  patterns, 
but  while  this  is  so,  the  use  of  a  good  blue  or  red  pencil 
stating  in  plain  English  the  parts  to  be  faced  or  polished, 
would  in  many  instances  save  castings  from  being  consigned 
to  the  scrap  heap. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  impure,  dirty  or  speckled 
surfaces  may  be  due  to  other  causes  than  those  considered 
in  this  chapter,  such  as  "  clubby  "  or  disproportionate  metal, 
but  these  will  be  dealt  with  later  in  the  chapter  on  "  Defects 
in  Cast-Iron  Castings." 


COKE   GUM  27 

CORE   GUM 

It  is  about  twenty-five  years  since  the  writer  first  used  core 
gum  in  core-making,  and  since  that  time  it  has  become  very 
popular  in  foundry  practice.  Previously  to  its  introduction 
there  were  many  devices  for  binding  or  strengthening  the  sand 
in  core-making,  such  as  clay  water,  salt  water,  sour  beer,  etc., 
and  in  very  small  cores  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  in  some 
districts  to  see  potatoes  pounded  in  sea-sand  to  give  cohesion 
to  the  sand  and  at  the  same  time  porosity  for  venting.  Since 
the  introduction  of  core  gum  these  former  practices  have  largely 
if  not  altogether  disappeared.  The  indiscriminate  use  of  core 
gum  by  many  moulders  has,  however,  been  the  cause  of  a 
good  deal  of  bad  work.  Sometimes  it  has  been  used  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  make  the  core  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  an 
ordinary  brick,  thus  destroying  all  porosity.  A  core  made 
from  such  a  mixture  as  here  described  can  have  only  one 
result,  namely,  a  bad  casting. 

The  cores  of  a  green-sand  mould  that  is  "cored,"  entirely 
closed  and  has  no  current  of  air  passing  through,  readily 
absorb  water  from  the  moist  atmosphere  of  the  mould.  But 
should  the  cores  in  such  a  mould  be  made  with  sea-sand  and 
core  gum,  this  danger  is  greatly  minimised ;  this  is  one  of 
the  greatest  recommendations  in  its  favour.  If  a  core  made 
with  sand  heavily  laden  with  plastic  matter  becomes  damp 
through  lying  in  the  mould,  it  is  sure  to  blow.  This  blowing 
will  be  more  mischievous  with  a  core  in  the  horizontal  position 
than  it  would  be  with  one  in  the  vertical  position.  It  would 
appear  that  there  is  great  lack  of  knowledge  regarding  the  use 
of  core  gum.  Even  those  who  seek  to  trade  in  it  do  not  seem 
to  have  acquired  sufficient  knowledge  as  to  its  real  nature  in 
so  far  as  foundry  work  is  concerned.  Trade  circulars  advise 
the  user  to  dissolve  it  in  hot  water,  which  cannot  be  properly 
done ;  and  were  one  to  boil  it,  the  undissolved  parts,  which 
float  about  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  would  simply  become 
harder.  Some  may  "say  that  this  is  of  small  importance,  as 
it  can  be  strained  through  a  sieve ;  but  why  have  this  loss  at 
all,  when  by  proper  care  there  need  be  none  of  it  ?  The 
speediest  and  by  far  the  best  way  to  dissolve  core  gum  is  by 


28  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

the  aid  of  cold  water.  Thus — take  2  Ibs.  or  any  workable 
quantity  of  core  gum,  put  it  into  a  suitable  dish,  then  add  a 
little  cold  water,  taking  care  to  add  no  more  water  than  the 
gum  is  capable  of  absorbing.  After  stirring  it  well,  and  when 
it  has  scarcely  reached  the  pasty  condition,  add  a  little  more 
cold  water  and  stir  again  ;  again  beat  it  well  with  a  stick  and 
add  a  little  more  water,  continuing  to  stir.  It  will  now  have 
reached  a  semi-fluid  condition.  Transfer  the  contents  as 
mixed  to  an  ordinary  2-gallon  bucket  and  fill  it  up  with  water. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  is  1  Ib.  of  core  gum  per  gallon 
of  water,  though  this  is  not  given  as  a  fixed  rule.  In  mixing 
sea-sand  it  is  better  if  the  sand  is  dry,  then  all  that  is  required 
in  mixing  such  sand  for  cores  is  to  apply  this  gum  water  to 
bring  it  to  the  desired  consistency. 

Cores  made  with  such  sand  must  belong  to  the  lighter  class 
of  castings,  as  this  sand  is  insufficient  to  withstand  the  strain 
and  the  rush  and  flow  of  a  heavy  body  of  metal.  While  this 
sand  is  highly  favoured  in  giving  completeness  of  outline,  it  is 
altogether  unsuitable  for  rubbing  or  carding,  and  were  one  to 
attempt  to  do  so,  such  a  core  would  collapse,  its  strength  being 
entirely  on  the  surface.  Of  course  these  remarks  on  sea-sand 
only  apply  to  sands  that  may  be  said  to  be  absolutely  free 
from  clay  or  plastic  matter.  All  the  same  a  little  clay  at 
times  for  certain  cores  is  an  advantage. 

Should  certain  conditions  make  a  dry  method  of  mixing 
preferable,  add  about  2  Ibs.  of  core  gum  to  four  ordinary 
buckets  of  dry  sand  ;  mix  thoroughly  together,  and  add  water  to 
bring  it  to  the  desired  consistency.  Dry  black- sand,  sieved, 
will  do  as  well  as  sea-sand;  but  as  it  contains  an  amount  of 
plastic  matter,  less  gum  will  be  needed,  the  amount  being 
determined  by  experience. 

Gum  water,  with  a  little  plumbago,  is  very  serviceable  in 
washing  a  mould  after  it  has  been  sleeked,  and  is  also  suitable 
for  repainting  a  mould  that  has  been  burned  in  drying.  The 
old  practice  of  re-blackwashing  is  almost  sure  to  result  in 
scaling  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  bad  work.  By  using  this 
wash  in  the  manner  described  it  penetrates  through  the 
burned  surface,  and  almost  restores  the  mould  to  its  normal 
condition.  The  writer  has  dusted  core  gum  on  green-sand 


BLOWHOLES  IN  CASTINGS  29 

work  in  order  to  bring  out  better  effects.  This  is  of  greatest 
advantage  about  the  gates  of  the  mould,  these  parts  being  most 
exposed  to  the  burning  rush  of  the  metal.  The  advantage  of 
this  is  always  more  apparent  the  longer  the  gum  lies  upon  the 
mould  before  being  cast.  The  gum  readily  adheres  to  a  green- 
sand  mould  that  is  damp  on  the  surface,  and  through  atmo- 
spheric influences  the  mould  is  thus  improved,  certain  weathers 
being  more  favourable  than  others.  In  brass  work  it  is  not 
so  serviceable  as  in  iron,  its  tendency  being  to  give  a  rougher 
skin  to  the  casting,  in  consequence  of  which  the  brass  finisher 
has  more  trouble  in  tooling  the  castings,  blunting  his  tool 
oftener  than  would  be  the  case  with  a  brass  casting  skinned 
with  pea-meal. 

BLOWHOLES   IN  CASTINGS 

In  these  days  of  superior  workmanship  we  still  hear  much 
of  the  so-called  blowholes  in  castings.  Kecent  inventions  in 
the  way  of  fluxes  have  done  but  little,  if  anything,  to  remove 
these  defects,  although  one  would  have  thought  when  these 
fluxes  were  being  introduced  into  the  trade  that  a  panacea  for 
a  very  large  percentage  of  the  moulder's  troubles  had  been 
found.  It  does  seem  strange  that,  should  a  casting  have  ever 
so  small  a  hole  showing  itself  on  a  finished  part,  the  moulder  has 
to  bear  all  the  blame,  whereas  it  maybe  one  of  those  faults  that 
more  properly  belongs  to  the  iron  smelter;  or,  if  such  defects 
appear  in  a  more  intensified  form,  the  engineer  or  the  one 
responsible  for  designing  the  casting  is  responsible.  This 
intensified  form  of  "  blowhole  "  is  usually  a  "  draw  "  through 
disproportionate  metal,  and  95  per  cent,  of  what  are  termed 
in  finished  work  "  blowholes  "  are  incorrectly  so  called,  as  they 
are  entirely  due  to  shrinkage. 

I  do  not  say  that  modern  fluxes  can  in  no  way  improve  the 
founder's  position ;  but  while  these  may  be  useful  in  elimi- 
nating impurities  and  giving  increased  fluidity,  they  cannot 
make  up  for  the  loss  of  density  due  to  disproportionate 
thicknesses. 

It  matters  not  how  much  blowing  a  crude  pig  may  show  in 
fracture,  this  same  product  must  be  returned  in  the  form  of 
first-class  polished  work,  and  the  fact  of  modern  fluxes  being 


30 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


FIG.  16. 


so  much  to  the  front  clearly  indicates  that  much  is  at  fault 
with  pig  metal,  for  which  the  moulder  cannot  be  held 
responsible,  or  that  the  founder  is  at  fault  in  mixing  his 
metals. 

Thus  far  it  will  be  seen  that  what  are  popularly  known  as 
blowholes  in  castings  are  due  to  unsuitable  pig  metal  or  to 
faulty  design.  But  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  so  in  the 
future  the  moulder  will  undoubtedly  be  held  responsible  for 

all  defective  castings  caused  by 
"  shrinkholes,"  whether  due  to 
shrinkage  or  to  gases. 

Once  understood,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  remember  that  a  blowhole 
— that  is,  a  hole  formed  in  a  casting 
through  the  action  of  an  air-bubble— 
is  always  of  a  clear  colour,  and  has  a. 
hard  or  chilled  surface.  A  shrink- 
hole  is  generally  of  a  bluish  colour, 
its  interior  being  rugged,  and  at  times 
taking  the  form  of  a  rough  spider's 
web.  The  contrast  is  very  decided, 
and  no  one,  therefore,  need  be  mis- 
taken. No  holes  of  the  latter 
description  are  to  be  found  in  pro- 
portionate metal. 

In  Figs.  16, 17  and  18  at  A  is  seen 
a  very  common  form  of  blowhole, 
usually  styled  in  foundry  parlance  a 
"  blister."  This  form  of  blowhole 

is  very  common  on  pipes  that  are  cast  in  green -sand  in  the 
horizontal  position,  and  is  undoubtedly  a  moulder's  error. 
In  this  matter,  however,  opinion  differs  very  much.  Some 
maintain  that  it  is  caused  by  too  hard  ramming  of  the  top 
part  or  flask,  while  others  maintain  that  it  is  caused  by  the 
core  being  too  hard,  the  latter  being  the  true  solution,  in 
the  writer's  opinion.  Many  years  ago  I  happened  to  be  a 
working  journeyman  in  a  shop  doing  a  large  trade  in  green - 
sand  column  and  pipe  work.  Along  with  others  I  was  at 
times  troubled  with  "  blistering "  on  the  top  side  of  these 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  18. 


BLOWHOLES  IN  CASTINGS  31 

castings,  so  much  so  at  times  that  in  a  9-ft.  length  of  pipe  at 
a  distance  of  about  2  ft.  from  the  flange  of  both  ends  one 
could,  after  breaking  the  skin,  which  was  no  thicker  than 
ordinary  silk  paper,  easily  fit  in  the  side  of  one's  finger  in 
several  parts  of  the  space  mentioned.  These  blisters  are 
always  hidden  until  by  accident  or  otherwise  they  are  broken. 
The  simplest  way  to  find  them  is  by  rubbing  the  head  of  a 
fettler's  hammer  across  the  top  side  of  the  casting,  when, 
immediately  the  hammer  passes  across  them,  they  will 
respond  by  a  slight  whistling  sound.  As  a  practical  moulder 
I  have  never  found  too  hard  ramming  of  green-sand  pipes 
tend  to  cause  blistering,  neither  do  I  regard  the  use  of  the 
vent  wire  in  such  work  a  necessity.  The  hardest  ramming  of 
sand  in  this  class  of  work  leaves  sufficient  porosity  to  admit 
easy  exit  of  the  gases,  but  a  top  part  that  has  been  rammed  up 
with  too  wet  sand  would  never  retain  its  metal.  The  chances 
are  that  immediately  it  was  cast  it  would  emit  its  metal  with 
such  a  spluttering  that  no  hope  of  saving  it  would  be 
possible.  A  core  that  is  too  hard  may  be  so  from  two 
causes — either  from  too  hard  ramming,  or  from  the  sand 
being  too  wet.  It  may  be  asked  what  guidance  there  is  to 
determine  with  accuracy  what  consistency  is  required.  To 
this,  I  say,  there  is  but  little,  as  it  is  simply  a  matter  of  con- 
tinued practice  and  close  observation  as  to  results.  A  sand 
that  gives  off  a  perceptible  amount  of  water,  or,  as  it  were, 
sweats  the  core-box  in  making  the  core,  is  certainly  not  good. 
Cores  made  from  such  sand  are  dense,  difficult  to  vent,  and 
troublesome  to  the  fettler  in  coring  the  casting.  A  defective 
loam  core  may  be  due  to  several  causes.  Two  of  these  may 
be  mentioned  —  viz.,  too  strong  loam,  by  this  I  mean  a 
predominance  of  clay  or  plastic  matter  (such  substance 
closing  up  the  most  porous  of  loams)  ;  and  secondly,  the 
working  of  the  last  coat  of  loam  to  the  extent  of  bringing  up 
a  glazed  surface.  In  these  two  classes  of  cores  (especially 
in  horizontal  pipe  casting)  is  to  be  found  that  which 
should  be  avoided,  viz.,  excess  of  density.  But  wherever  it 
exists,  if  the  moulder,  before  blackwashing  such  cores  would 
simply  draw  his  card  across  the  glazed  surface  and  destroy 
such  density,  he  need  have  little  fear  of  the  result.  There  is 


32  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

no  necessity  for  carding  the  whole  core  ;  as  the  roughing 
of  the  top  side  will  ensure  a  free  exit  of  the  gases  contained 
in  the  core.  To  those  who  may  have  doubts  upon  this  matter 
I  should  like  to  draw  their  attention  to  the  contrast  of  a  dry- 
sand  and  loam  core  as  against  a  green-sand  one.  In  using  a 
green-sand  core,  should  the  core  "  scab  "  the  unanimous  opinion 
would  be  that  too  hard  ramming  was  the  cause.  This  is 
somewhat  similar  to  what  takes  place  with  a  dry-sand  or  loam 
core  that  is  too  hard  and  glazed  on  the  surface,  with  this 
difference — that  we  get  the  blister  on  the  latter,  while  we 
have  the  scab  on  the  former,  the  blister  being  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  surface  of  the  core  has  remained  intact  through- 
out the  period  of  fluidity,  and  thus  has  prevented  the  escape 
of  gases.  But  were  the  surface  of  the  core  to  break  away 
(a  thing  that  has  never  happened  in  my  experience)  there 
would  be  a  scab  in  the  place  of  a  "  blister,"  thus  clearly 
showing  that  blisters  or  blowholes  in  such  castings  are  caused 
by  laxity  in  venting. 

BURNING  OF  CASTINGS 

The  process  of  "burning"  means  the  renewal  of  a  defective 
part  of  a  casting  by  pouring  fluid  metal  on  to  it  until  the 
defective  part  has  become  fluid,  and  then  filling  up  the  space 
with  fluid  metal.  Or,  the  ends  of  two  separate  pieces  may  be 
joined  together  by  pouring  metal  right  down  through  any 
broken  casting,  as  shown  in  Figs.  19  and  20,  and  thus  uniting 
the  two  ends  into  one.  Care  must  be  taken  to  give  plenty  of 
metal  for  chipping,  turning  or  finishing.  If  this  be  attended 
to  as  directed,  and  the  burned  part  be  finished  an  inch  or 
two  outside  the  new  metal,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to 
detect  where  the  joining  of  the  old  and  new  metal  begins. 

"  Burning "  is  not  done  well  by  quite  a  number  who 
attempt  it,  and  doubtless  this  in  a  measure  accounts 
for  the  prejudice  which  many  engineers  have  against  it. 
Many  attempt  to  perform  this  operation  without  clearly 
understanding  its  essentials.  Thus  no  one  can  "  burn  "  who 
does  not  take  due  account  of  the  effects  of  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  metals.  It  is  true  that  this  is  not  a  branch  of 


BUENING  OF  CASTINGS  33 

the  trade  that  is  accessible  to  the  ordinary  moulder  in  the 
sense  that  other  foundry  practice  is ;  and  it  is  to  those  who 
are  so  unfortunately  situated,  and  desire  to  know  something 
of  the  subject,  that  this  chapter  will  be  of  most  value. 

"Burning  Cold." — It  is  an  easy  matter  if  we  simply  look  upon 
the  part  to  be  burned  as  a  hole  in  a  casting,  and  a  pouring 
of  metal  on  such  a  part  until  it  becomes  fusible,  and  then  the 
filling  up  of  the  hole  to  our  satisfaction  with  fluid  metal.  But 
if  nothing  be  done  to  expand  this  part  of  the  casting  pre- 
viously to  burning,  and  if  it  be  of  cylindrical  section,  then 
there  is  no  chance  whatever  of  such  an  attempt  at  burning 
being  a  success,  in  so  far  as  its  capabilities  of  withstanding  a 
static  pressure  test  of  any  kind  is  concerned. 

By  the  foregoing  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  to  "  burn  " 
without  heating  castings,  in  every  case,  to  a  dull  red  heat  is 


FIG.  19.  FIG.  20. 

an  impossibility.  All  castings  or  parts  of  castings  that  may  be 
said  to  possess  regular  shrinkage,  such  as  the  one  illustrated  in 
Fig.  19,  are  quite  safe,  and  have  no  need  of  previous  heating. 
In  Figs.  19  and  20  it  will  be  seen  that  in  burning  right  down 
through  this  broken  shaft  or  bar,  a  certain  amount  of  expansion 
must  take  place.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  there  is  nothing  to 
interrupt  its  expansion,  and,  since  this  is  so,  there  is  likewise  no 
restraint  in  its  contraction.  Had  such  an  article  been  bound,  as 
the  spokes  of  a  wheel  are  bound  to  its  boss  and  the  rim,  such 
a  method  of  burning,  as  shown  here,  would  prove  an  absolute 
failure. 

Fig.  21  is  another  example  of  what  can  be  done  with 
perfect  safety  without  previously  heating  the  casting,  and  if 
such  a  flange  be  attached  to  a  pipe,  or  any  other  cylindrical 
casting,  and  the  flange  be  broken  not  too  near  the  fillet  of  the 
body  attached  to  the  flange,  there  is  no  danger  of  the  casting 
cracking  from  expansion  by  the  process  of  burning  without 
previous  heating.  It  is  better  in  such  cases  as  this  to  make 

F.P.  D 


34  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

sure  that  the  burn  will  all  be  of  new  metal,  and  sufficiently 
far  into  the  flange  to  admit  of  the  bolt  holes  being  drilled 
entirely  through  the  new  metal,  because,  should  it  happen  that 
the  drill  in  boring  the  holes  in  the  flange  came  in  contact 

with   the   chilled   metal  which 

Finished  to  Size  j         ^Burned™       inevitably  joins  the  old  and  the 

new,  the  chances  are  that  the 
casting  would  run  much  risk  of 
being  lost  altogether  through 
the  drill  not  having  the  power 
to  get  through  the  chilled  metal 
in  question. 

What  is  stated  here  as  apply- 
ing to  the  burning  of  "  cold 
castings,"  applies  with  safety  to 
any  terminal  or  other  parts 
of  a  casting  that  are  in  every  way  free  to  expand  and  contract 
without  developing  undue  strains  in  any  direction. 

Having  shown  in  a  practical  way  those  classes  of  castings 
which  can  be  burned  with  safety  without  heating  we  will  now 
give  one  or  two  examples  where  heating  previously  to  burning 
becomes  an  absolute  necessity. 

Heating. — In  the  first  place  take  a  casting  with  a  cylindrical 
body,  which  may  either  be  cylinder,  pipe,  valve,  plunger 
barrel,  or  square  hollow  section  of  any  kind,  and  with  no 
internal  attachments  cast  on.  Now,  with  any  of  these 
castings  having  a  defective  part,  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
burning  such  castings  to  withstand  as  much  pressure,  if 
not  more,  than  the  soundest  part  of  the  entire  casting,  provided 
it  be  gone  about  in  a  right  way. 

The  modus  operaiuli  should  be  as  follows : — Place  the  casting 
on  the  dead  level  with  the  part  intended  to  be  "  burned." 
Secure  the  same  by  ramming  properly  with  sand,  or  other- 
wise. Next  surround  the  casting  or  as  much  of  it  as  may  be 
necessary,  by  a  perforated  brick  wall,  or  improvised  oven 
sufficiently  high  to  enable  the  top  to  be  covered  with  plates 
and  so  form  a  temporary  furnace.  Then,  build  a  fire  and 
light  it,  and  when  the  smoke  has  almost  exhausted  itself, 
roof  across  with  the  plate  or  plates  mentioned,  and  when 


VENTING  35 

the  casting  has  reached  a  dull-red-heat  apply  the  ladle  with 
its  metal  contents  and  "  burn."  Every  operation,  wherever 
possible  should  begin  and  end  with  one  ladle  of  metal,  and 
this  is  specially  so  when  a  crane  ladle  has  to  be  resorted  to. 
On  the  burning  being  completed  it  should  instantly  be  covered 
over  with  charcoal  or  blacking.  This  secures  it  from  atmo- 
spheric chilling,  and  as  a  consequence  the  metal  is  softened, 
thus  making  it  easy  for  chipping  and  filing.  With  the  "  burn  " 
covered  over  with  blacking  the  plates  are  again  thrown  over 
this  temporary  furnace,  and  the  whole  affair  is  allowed  to  cool 
as  if  it  were  an  annealing  oven.  With  such  treatment  as 
above  mentioned,  no  one  need  fear  the  result,  as  I  have  never 
seen  it  fail  to  give  the  greatest  satisfaction. 

But  whether  heated  or  cold,  castings  are  in  no  way  weakened 
by  burning  if  in  the  process  of  burning  they  have  been  allowed 
to  expand  and  contract  in  the  manner  previously  referred  to. 

Brass  may  be,  and  is,  burned  cold ;  steel  is  similarly 
treated;  but  in  these  cases  the  ductility  or  malleability  of 
these  metals  admits  of  "  pinning,"  and  so  saves  the  castings 
from  becoming  "  wasters.'5  Pinning  thus  with  cast  iron  is 
an  impossibility  because  of  its  hard  and  unyielding  nature. 

VENTING 

All  moulders  who  desire  to  master  the  intricacies  of  their 
trade  should  very  carefully  study  the  subject  of  venting.  If 
venting  be  done  imperfectly,  blowing,  scabbing,  or  both 
together  are  likely  to  occur,  and  that  which  should  have  been 
a  good  casting  turns  out  a  scrap,  and  hence  the  importance  of 
venting  properly  and  giving  means  of  easy  exit  to  the  gases. 

A  slight  digression  may  be  made  here  on  the  question  of  the 
finishing  of  a  mould  as  it  relates  to  venting,  and  what  is  said 
at  present  specially  applies  to  heavy  green-sand  work.  The 
principle,  however,  might  with  advantage  be  applied  to  all 
branches  of  moulding.  The  fault  common  to  jobbing  moulders 
in  finishing  is  the  desire  to  polish  the  surface  until  the  grain 
of  the  sand  which  composes  the  mould  becomes  almost 
imperceptible.  Wherever  such  unnecessary  work  is  performed 
the  danger  of  scabbing  is  greatly  increased,  even  although  the 

D  2 


36 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 


vent  wire  may  have  been  applied  with  intelligence.  The  reason 
of  this  to  practical  men  is  obvious,  as  such  glossy  polishing 
destroys  to  a  great  extent  the  porosity  of  the  surface,  and 
the  metal  in  consequence  cannot  come  to  rest  in  contact  with 
the  surface  of  the  mould,  until  the  polished  face  breaks  away 
to  allow  the  escape  of  steam  and  other  gases,  thus  causing  a 
scab  on  the  casting.  Therefore  it  will  be  observed  that  dis- 
criminate venting,  form  and  efficiency  should  be  the  guiding 
principles  in  finishing  a  mould,  leaving  as  much  polishing  as 
is  necessary  to  come  after  blackening  or  black-washing. 

Fig.  22  will  serve  to  show  what  is  required  in  general 
practice.  In  looking  at  the  relative  position  of  the  vents, 
viz.,  the  bottom  A,  the  top  C,  and  the  sides  B,  I  believe  it 

is  within  the  mark  to 
say  that  the  danger 
of  scabbing  on  the 
bottom  is  three  times 
greater  than  it  is 
likely  to  be  on  the 
sides,  and  the  danger 
from  scabbing  on  the 
top  side  is  almost  nil. 
In  the  foregoing  I 
have  merely  shown 

effect;  but  what  of  the  cause?  The  only  reason  I  can  assign 
for  it  is  the  natural  tendency  which  gas  has  to  rise  upwards, 
and  were  it  not  for  the  vents  that  are  seen  on  the  bottom  of 
the  mould  (Fig.  22),  nothing  could  prevent  such  a  mould 
from  producing  a  badly  scabbed  casting. 

Having  made  the  principle  of  venting  the  bottom  presumably 
clear,  it  leaves  one  but  little  to  say  concerning  the  side  vents. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  these  conduct  the  gases  through  the 
joint  of  the  mould,  but  should  they  fail  to  make  their  escape 
as  mentioned,  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  were  the  side 
vents  connected  to  the  coke  bed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  the  safety 
from  scabbing  in  such  a  job  is  equally  secured.  There  is  no 
fixed  rule  that  all  vents  should  pass  straight  upwards  in  the 
vertical  position,  the  very  opposite  is  the  case  in  many  jobs, 
as,  wherever  the  coke  bed  is  necessary  in  the  venting  of  the 


Vents 
FIG.  22. 


VENTING  37 

mould,  all  gases  must  pass  downwards  into  the  coke  bed  before 
making  their  way  through  the  tube  D,  as  shown  on  the  figure. 
Still,  as  a  principle,  let  them  off  as  quickly  and  freely  as 
possible. 

In  the  top  part  E,  I  have  already  stated  that  the  danger  from 
scabbing  is  almost  nil.  This  is  attributable  to  the  fact  that  the 
gases  make  their  exit  without  coming  into  touch  with  the 
metal.  It  will  require  no  great  stretch  of  imagination  to  see 
that  when  the  mould  is  filled  up  to  the  top  with  metal,  the 
gases  in  the  top-part  pass  off  quite  uninterruptedly.  This  is 
entirely  the  opposite  of  what  takes  place  at  the  bottom,  as  we 
find  these  seeking  to  make  their  way  through  the  surface  of 
the  mould,  and  but  for  good  and  direct  venting  to  the  coke 
bed,  as  seen  at  Fig.  22,  and  a  speedy  covering  of  the  surface 
of  the  mould  while  casting,  the  gases  would  obtain  the  mastery 
with  disastrous  results. 

It  is  a  disputed  point  with  many  moulders  as  to  whether 
it  is  necessary  to  use  the  vent  wire  for  the  top  part  or  not. 
Practically,  I  have  always  discarded  it,  as  I  believe  all 
moulding  sands  are  sufficiently  porous  to  make  such  venting 
unnecessary,  and  that  metal  will  lie  in  contact  with  any  flat 
top-part  of  a  mould,  however  hard  rammed  in  green-sand,  or 
imperfectly  dried  in  dry-sand.  The  only  thing  that  can 
happen  with  the  latter  is  the  extra  tenacity  with  which  the 
sand  clings  to  the  casting,  but  it  in  no  way  seriously  affects  it. 
This  adhesion  is  caused  through  the  generation  of  steam, 
which  more  or  less  comes  in  contact  with  the  casting  the 
moment  the  mould  is  filled.  Again,  I  consider  a  top-part  that 
is  not  vented  to  be  stronger  on  that  account,  and  has  less 
tendency  to  be  "  drawn  down,"  as  the  gases  that  generate 
at  time  of  casting  are  better  held,  inasmuch  as  there  are  no 
vents  in  the  top  whereby  they  would  be  able  to  escape  more 
readily.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  with  the  greater  pressure 
on  the  flat  roof,  the  top-part  is  thereby  carried  up ;  conse- 
quently the  danger  from  "drawing  down"  is  greatly 
minimised.  But  I  must  not  be  misunderstood  concerning  the 
difference  between  flat  top-parts,  and  those  that  have  cores  or 
projections  attached  that  have  been  rammed  from  pattern. 
Wherever  there  are  projections,  "pockets,"  or  anything  that  is 


38  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

rammed  up  in  a  top-part  and  projects  from  the  surface,  such 
must  be  vented  and  with  the  greatest  care. 

THE   USE   OF  THE   EISER   IN   CASTING 

"Riser"  is  the  name  given  to  the  overflow  of  metal  in- 
dicating when  a  mould  is  filled  at  the  time  of  casting.  Risers 
are  necessary  for  a  three-fold  purpose,  first,  as  already  stated, 
to  show  when  a  mould  is  full ;  second,  to  relieve  the  highest 
part  of  a  mould  of  the  dirty  metal  which  invariably  makes  for 
the  highest  part,  and  third,  for  feeding  purposes.  They  may 
likewise  assist  in  checking  the  pressure  and  velocity  of  the 
metal  at  the  time  of  pouring — two  very  important  matters  for 
which  a  moulder  must  intelligently  provide. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  in  casting  for  one  to  have 
an  idea  as  to  the  most  suitable  moment  for  checking  the 
ladle.  It  is  no  uncommon  mistake  to  see  a  mould  unduly 
strained  for  want  of  precision  in  this  matter. 

The  number  of  risers  in  a  job  should  always  be  fixed  and 
proportioned  as  far  as  practicable  in  accordance  with  the  size 
of  the  pouring  gates.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  risers 
at  all  times  somewhat  less  in  area  than  that  of  the  pouring 
gates,  otherwise,  the  force  of  compression  necessary  for  the 
casting  will  be  insufficient.  If  we  consider  a  job  being  cast, 
the  risers  of  which  have  twice  the  area  of  the  pouring  gates, 
and  the  metal  is  somewhat  duller  than  desirable,  the  casting 
is  sure  to  suffer  to  some  extent  from  want  of  compression. 
This  is  due  to  the  metal  having  failed  to  rise  in  the  riser 
basins  owing  to  the  extra  area  of  the  risers,  thus  diminishing 
the  fluid  pressure. 

No  doubt  much  work  is  cast  without  the  aid  of  risers,  but  it 
is  mostly  of  an  architectural  order.  Even  in  this  class  of  work 
some  prefer  what  is  called  a  "  blow  off"  about  the  corners  or 
terminus  of  the  mould,  which  is  the  means  of  brightening  up 
what  would  otherwise  be  a  dull  part  of  the  casting ;  but  as 
this  may  not  be  more  than  a  twentieth  of  the  pouring  gate,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  treat  it  after  the  manner  of  a  riser.  This 
class  of  work  is  always  perferred  with  as  little  broken  skin  as 
possible,  and  as  it  must  be  cast  at  a  high  temperature,  risers 
are  not  a  great  necessity.  The  principle  of  moulding  here 


THE  USE   OF   THE   RISER  IN  CASTING 


If 


FIG.  23. 


u 


adopted  is  what  is  known  as  the  "  turn  over"  with  top  and 
bottom  boxes.  These  being  tightly  clamped,  with  ordinary 
care  there  is  no  real  danger  from  straining,1  no  matter  at 
what  speed  the  mould  may  be  filled. 

The  placing  of  a  riser  on  the  highest  part,  must  at  all  times 
be  observed,  even  at  the  sacrifice  of  all  other  considerations. 
It  may  be  that  proportionately  to  the  thickness  of  metal,  there 
is  no  real  necessity  for  placing  a  riser  here  for  feeding 
purposes  ;  but  as  this 
is  the  highest  part  of 
the  casting,  the  riser 
is  indispensable,  in 
order  to  relieve  the 
dirt  or  kish  which  is 
sure  to  locate  itself 
in  this  part.  While 
clearly  showing  the 
necessity  of  the 
risers  on  the  highest 
parts,  it  is  likewise 
necessary  to  place 
risers  on  other  parts 
which  may  have 

considerably  thicker  FlG  24. 

metal,    necessitating 

feeding,  as  often  occurs  with   certain   castings   or  parts   of 
castings. 

In  Fig.  23,  riser  B,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  flange  is  much 
larger  than  that  at  A,  at  its  opposite  end.  Of  course  this 
flange  is  proportionately  thicker,  in  consequence  of  which 
this  part  of  the  casting  is  longest  in  setting;  and  with  no 
application  of  the  feeder  here,  the  only  result  possible  would 
be  what  is  termed  a  "  drawn  hole,"  showing  itself  probably 
to  a  considerable  depth  into  the  casting.  This  would  be  more 
intensified  were  the  riser  of  a  small  size — say,  one-third  the 
thickness  of  the  flange.  The  riser  B  should  be  of  an  oblong 
shape,  its  breadth  being  not  more  than  a  J  in.  or  f  in.,  less 
than  the  full  thickness  of  the  flange.  It  must  be  obvious  from 
1  Except  those  parts  in  immediate  contact  with  the  pouring  gates. 


40  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

this  increased  size  that  the  riser  gate  remains  fluid  for  a 
longer  period,  which  in  its  turn  has  the  better  chance  of 
feeding  the  flange,  even  though  no  rod  be  applied. 

While  such  a  gate  as  the  one  described  may  be  reckoned  as 
a  factor  of  safety  in  securing  a  solid  flange,  it  by  no  means 
guarantees  a  solid  casting,  and  entire  satisfaction  can  only  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  such  a  gate  and  the  action  of  the 
feeding  rod.  In  Fig.  23,  basin  A,  the  flange  being  consider- 
ably less,  there  is  no  real  necessity  for  applying  the  feeding  rod 
here,  as  many  moulders  do.  We  have  used  Fig.  24  as  a  contrast 
to  show  the  difference  of  a  cylindrical  body  without  flanges 
in  its  relation  to  risers  and  feeding.  A  casting  of  this  type 
has  the  same  necessity  for  risers  as  the  previous  one,  with  this 
difference — that  in  Fig.  23,  A  may  be  said  to  serve  a  two-fold 
purpose,  that  is,  while  relieving  the  mould  of  its  dirtiest  metal 
(which  invariably  makes  for  the  highest  part  of  the  mould),  it 
also  serves  the  purpose  of  feeding;  but  as  Fr*.  24  shows  no 
flanges,  and  there  is  nothing  but  proportionals  ,:etal  through- 
out, feeding  is  not  a  necessity.  But  it  is  ap  Uy  necessary 
that  the  gates  at  the  extremities  should  be  there,  in  order  that 
these  parts  of  the  casting  may  be  as  clean  as  it  is  possible  to 
get  them.  It  will  be  seen  from  the  figure  under  consideration 
that  the  metal  is  striking  right  across  the  back  of  the  core 
and  finding  its  way  to  the  bottom ;  it  gradually  rises  right 
to  the  spot  where  it  first  entered  the  mould,  but  on  its  return, 
it  had  laden  itself  more  or  less  with  an  accumulation  of  dirt, 
and  may  be  dull  owing  to  oxidation.  Hence  the  need  for  the 
end  risers. 

Next  we  will  take  up  the  question  of  the  open  or  shut  riser 
at  time  of  casting.  It  is  stated  by  those  who  seek  to  uphold 
the  open  riser  that  the  increased  volume  of  air  and  gas  under 
pressure  naturally  seeks  for  a  speedy  exit,  and  if  refused  such, 
the  result  can  only  be  detrimental  to  the  mould  in  causing 
scabbing.  Then,  again,  they  maintain  that  by  keeping  the 
risers  open  the  dust  caused  by  the  motion  of  the  gas  finds  an 
easy  way  of  escape,  which  is  the  means  of  securing  a  sound 
and  clean  casting.  This  sounds  all  very  well  in  theory,  but  it 
is  sometimes  forgotten  that  with  closed  risers  there  is  no  current 
of  gases  blowing  off.  No  two  moulds  can  be  said  to  generate 


THE  USE  OF  THE  BISER  IN  CASTING  41 

gases  alike,  they  at  all  times  being  dissimilarly  placed  through 
variation  of  temperature  and  dampness  inherent  to  the  sand 
and  atmosphere.  Take  as  an  example  a  dry- sand  mould  which 
is  comparatively  free  from  gases ;  it  is  of  little  consequence 
whether  its  risers  be  open  or  shut.  Should  the  gases  be 
blowing  off  with  considerable  force,  there  is  no  dread  of  any- 
thing going  wrong  with  the  mould,  the  strength  of  which  is 
more  than  able  to  resist  the  strongest  current  of  gases  possible. 
Then,  again,  the  gases  being  almost  nil  compared  with  a  green- 
sand  mould,  we  have  always  been  inclined  to  leave  the  risers 
open,  such  being  the  means  of  allowing  any  steam  to  escape 
caused  by  dampness  created,  it  may  be,  through  the  stamping 
of  "  bearings  "  or  daubing  of  joints  with  loam. 

The  treatment  applicable  to  risers  in  dry-sand  work  is  equally 
good  for  loam.  But  to  return  to  the  most  critical  point, 
namely,  risers  in  heavy  green- sand  work,  we  would  in  every 
case  advise  those  who  have  to  handle  such  to  adhere  rigidly  to 
closed  risers. 

We  may  now  make  a  brief  allusion  to  the  advantages  of 
compressed  gas  sustaining  a  mould  at  the  time  of  casting. 
But  before  referring  to  this  point  it  would  be  well  to  consider 
from  whence  those  gases  come.  In  a  green-sand  mould  the  sand 
may  be  said  to  contain  about  20  per  cent,  of  coal  (for  heavy 
work)  in  the  form  of  coal-dust,  which  is  ground  to  the  finest 
possible  condition ;  then  the  other  ingredients  in  the  black 
sand,  which  forms  a  good  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  facing  sand, 
contain  in  a  moistened  state  what  may  be  termed  "  marshy 
matters,"  all  of  which  combine  to  form  the  gases  referred  to. 
A  mould  that  is  ready  to  receive  metal  can  contain  nothing 
but  air,  but  immediately  molten  metal  enters  such  a  mould 
the  gas  begins  to  generate,  and  is  intensified  in  pressure  until 
the  mould  is  finally  filled,  such  gases  being  forced  to  make 
their  exit  through  the  interstices  of  the  top  part  and  the 
surrounding  vent  holes  which  usually  accompany  green-sand 
moulding.  This  is  one  of  the  primary  advantages  which  are 
to  be  obtained  by  the  risers  being  closed.  Again,  if  we  consider 
the  interior  of  a  mould,  we  shall  see  what  advantages  are  to 
be  gained  with  such  a  mould  under  gas  compression.  The 
fact  of  such  gas  under  pressure  seeking  for  an  exit  goes  a 


42  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

great  way  to  sustain  the  whole  interior,  and  no  part  of  the 
mould  is  more  sustained  than  the  top,  this  part  being  the 
most  liable  to  "  drawing  down "  through  the  heat  of  the 
metal,  and  more  especially  is  this  so  where  the  mould  is  too 
long  in  filling.  No  such  advantages  as  here  referred  to  can  be 
got  with  the  open  risers,  as  the  gases  under  such  conditions 
are  supposed  to  pass  freely  through  the  risers  as  they  generate 
in  the  mould,  therefore  we  should  continue  to  keep  to  the 
closed  riser,  especially  in  green-sand  moulding,  knowing  that 
with  such  it  is  an  impossibility  to  err  in  so  far  as  the  treat- 
ment of  risers  is  concerned. 

CHAPLETS 

Chaplets  are  a  necessary  evil  that  moulders  will  probably 
have  to  contend  with  so  long  as  castings  are  made.  One  can 
scarcely  think  of  them  being  in  a  casting  without  doing  more 
or  less  harm,  and  although  in  hundreds  of  cases  the  evil  never 
shows  itself,  the  weakness  of  those  parts  where  chaplets  are 
embedded  would  be  very  apparent  if  the  casting  were  broken 
up.  At  the  same  time  chaplets  can  be  used,  and  when 
intelligently  applied  do  no  serious  harm  to  a  casting  either 
under  steam  or  water  pressure.  The  indiscriminate  use  of 
chaplets  has  been  the  means  of  losing  many  a  good  casting, 
and  the  safest  rule  for  moulders  to  go  by  is  to  add  a  little 
more  metal  wherever  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  chaplet.  If 
this  be  carried  out  it  will  certainly  give  the  greatest  satisfaction 
to  all  parties,  since  it  is  an  admitted  fact  that  chaplets  cannot 
be  interspersed  among  the  cores  in  order  to  keep  them  in  their 
places  without  weakening  the  metal. 

It  is  scarcely  permissible  to  place  a  chaplet  on  any  part 
which  may  have  to  be  polished,  but  in  cases  where  it  is 
necessary  to  have  one  or  more  the  only  way  to  get  over  the 
difficulty  is  by  bedding  the  studs  half  an  inch  or  so  below  the 
surface  of  the  mould.  These  projecting  from  the  face  of 
the  casting  can  be  easily  chipped  off  by  the  dresser  or  fettler  at 
the  time  of  cleaning  the  casting,  and  wh^n  machining  takes 
place  the  worst  that  can  be  noticed  is  a  white  spot  on  the 
finished  surface  caused  by  the  malleable  iron  being  denser 
than  the  cast  iron  which  enshrouds  it. 


CHAPLETS  43 

Many  of  the  methods  adopted  in  foundries  to  overcome  the 
tendency  which  chaplets  have  to  create  blowholes  are  quite 
unsuitable,  and  the  tarring  process,  as  it  is  known  to  moulders, 
is  perhaps  the  worst.  I  have  worked  in  shops  where  it  was 
the  only  remedy  in  use.  Now,  if  I  were  asked  what  would  be 
the  best  thing  to  do  to  admit  of  a  mandrel  being  easily  taken 
from  a  casting,  I  should  unhesitatingly  say  tar  it.  The  only 
way  to  get  a  casting  with  a  tarred  chaplet  steam  or  watertight  is 
by  casting  at  a  temperature  higher  than  is  good  for  the  mould 
generally.  This  high  casting  temperature  enables  the  metal 
to  destroy  part  of  the  coating  of  tar  before  settling  down.  The 
application  of  chalk  also  cannot  be  recommended,  although  it 
is  regarded  by  some  as  having  a  beneficial  effect  in  absorbing 
water  and  preventing  the  formation  of  watery  beads  which  con- 
dense on  the  chaplets  in  every  green-sand  mould  which  is  closed 
for  any  length  of  time  before  casting.  Again,  many  pass 
chaplets  through  the  fire,  and  this  is  not  without  good  effect. 
The  dust,  however,  which  adheres  to  the  burnt  chaplets  after 
this  treatment  is  objectionable,  and  they  should  never  be  used 
until  they  have  been  coated  with  oil.  The  oil  promotes  the 
union  between  the  metal  and  the  chaplets  by  the  reduction  of 
the  oxide  of  iron  on  the  surface  of  the  latter..  Indeed,  chaplets 
that  are  comparatively  clean  are  quite  safe  with  oil  alone. 

Tinning  of  chaplets  is  commendable,  and  where  this  is 
properly  done  it  has  its  advantages  over  some  of  the  cruder 
treatments.  As  this  adds  considerably  to  the  cost  it  frequently 
happens  that  a  compound  of  spelter  and  tin  is  substituted, 
which  has  a  detrimental  effect,  and  cannot  give  the  result 
desired.  Although  tin  has  the  greatest  affinity  for  cast 
iron,  and  in  that  way,  I  believe,  has  the  greatest  accep- 
tance among  moulders,  still,  this  has  not  been  found  the 
panacea  for  all  ills  that  accompany  the  use  of  chaplets. 
Wherever  these  are  in  use,  moulders  would  do  well  to  see, 
first  of  all,  that  they  have  been  dipped  in  pure  tin,  and  not 
galvanised  as  frequently  happens  ;  also  to  make  sure  that  the 
dipping  has  been  perfect  and  complete,  as  chaplets  that 
remain  a  long  time  in  store  become  rusted  on  those  parts  that 
have  been  imperfectly  tinned.  And  a  chaplet  used  in  this 
condition  cannot  do  otherwise  than  disturb  the  metal,  thus 


44  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

creating  blowholes  in  contact  with  the  rusty  part  referred  to. 
However,  by  dipping  such  a  chaplet  in  creosote  the  oxide 
of  iron  will  be  destroyed,  and  affinity  with  molten  iron 
secured. 

To  paint  with  red-lead  is  an  old  device,  and  so  far  is 
serviceable  with  certain  classes  of  castings  ;  but  castings  that 
have  to  withstand  hydraulic  pressure  certainly  will  not  do 
well  with  chaplets  so  treated,  because,  were  one  to  rub  or  coat 
a  chaplet  with  dry  red-lead  putty  it  will  be  obvious  that  no 
adhesion  could  take  place  between  metal  and  chaplet.  Hence, 
the  only  hope  is  in  the  red-lead  as  a  paint,  and,  through  the 
oil  in  the  paint,  combustion  takes  place  as  the  metal  surrounds 
the  chaplet,  resulting  in  a  fair  amount  of  success  generally. 

And  now  for  the  last  of  those  antidotes,  which  is  the  best, 
cheapest,  and  most  commendable  of  all,  viz.,  creosote.  It 
does  not  matter  how  rusty  a  chaplet  may  be,  this  liquid  is 
at  all  times  capable  of  making  it  fit  for  use.  The  truth  of  this 
assertion  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  following  way  :  Take 
a  piece  of  rod  iron,  no  matter  how  rusty,  dip  it  thoroughly  in 
creosote,  and  then  put  it  into  a  ladle  of  molten  iron,  and  that 
which  otherwise  would  have  created  an  explosion,  is  received 
by  the  iron  with  comparative  placidity.  As  this  mode  of 
treatment  costs  so  little  in  time  and  money,  chaplets,  although 
tinned,  are  safer  when  given  a  coating  of  creosote. 

SHRINKAGE 

There  is  perhaps  no  property  of  metals  which  gives  more 
trouble  to  the  founder  than  that  of  shrinkage,  and  intelligent 
observation  and  careful  thought  are  needed  if  he  is  to  deal 
successfully  with  the  daily  occurring  problems  connected 
with  it. 

The  loses  amongst  our  engineering  craftsmen  and  others 
due  to  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  effects  of  expansion  and  con- 
traction have  been  at  times  demonstrated  to  us  in  practice. 
For  instance,  take  the  case  of  a  double  beat  valve,  whose 
different  parts  are  cast  of  different  metals  such  as  gunmetal 
and  iron,  which  when  exposed  to  the  same  heat  while  working 
gives  very  unsatisfactory  results  due  to  want  of  uniformity  of 


SHRINKAGE  45 

expansion  of  the  different  metals  of  which  the  parts  of  the 
valve  are  cast.  Under  such  conditions  of  heat  the  valve  face 
becomes  faulty,  and  cannot  act  with  the  precision  which  goes  to 
make  a  good  valve.  Consequently  all  constructions  that  are 
exposed  to  heat  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  cast  of  the  same 
metal  so  that  there  may  be  uniformity  of  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  all  the  different  parts.  The  importance  of  this  no 
one  can  over-estimate  in  any  form  of  constructional  engineer- 
ing, and  the  branch  of  engineering  that  does  not  necessitate 
a  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  expansion  and  contraction,  is  not 
known  to  the  man  of  experience. 

The  term  "  shrinkage  "  is  used  here  in  a  general  sense,  and 
includes  all  volume  changes  that  occur  in  the  metal  from 
the  moment  that  mould  is  completely  filled  until  the  casting 
has  reached  the  ordinary  temperature.  It  may  be  said  with 
safety  that  no  iron  with  which  the  founder  has  to  deal  contracts 
regularly  as  the  temperature  falls;  indeed,  in  many  cases 
shrinkage  may  conveniently  be  considered  as  occurring  in 
two  stages.  The  first  stage  covers  the  interval  between  the 
filling  of  the  mould  and  the  complete  solidification  of  the 
metal,  and  is  the  cause  of  "  draw,"  vacuum  holes,  and  what 
are  often  incorrectly  called  "  blowholes."  The  second  stage 
occupies  the  period  between  the  complete  solidification  of  the 
metal  and  the  ordinary  temperature,  i.e.,  until  shrinkage  is 
finished,  and  the  metal  reaches  a  state  of  what  may  be  called 
11  absolute  shrinkage  "  ;  during  this  stage  the  effects  of  shrink- 
age at  times  are  seen  in  warped  and  twisted  castings.  The 
effects  of  shrinkage  are  thus  of  two  kinds  which  may  be  called 
internal  and  external — the  former,  such  as  draw  and  shrinkage 
holes,  occurring  while  the  metal  is  in  the  fluid  and  plastic 
states  ;  and  the  latter,  such  as  warping  and  twisting,  which 
take  place  chiefly  after  the  metal  has  solidified. 

The  internal  effects  of  shrinkage  are  often  seen  in  spongy, 
porous  and  weak  parts  of  heavy  castings.  This  effect  is 
intensified  at  junctions  or  attachments  where  the  cooling  is 
less  rapid  than  in  other  parts,  but  these  unsound  junctions 
usually  only  reveal  themselves  under  the  hydraulic  test.  Design 
and  proportioning  of  thickness  are  thus  important  factors  since 
properly  proportioned  thickness  gives  uniformity  of  shrinkage 


46  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

and  uniformity  of  shrinkage  gives  elasticity  and  strength. 
Those  whose  duty  it  is  to  design  should  see  that  they  avoid 
objectionable  angles  when  designing  for  the  foundry,  because 
what  might  prove  a  first-class  design  for  constructional  work, 
would  as  likely  as  not  mean  irretrievable  loss  in  the  foundry 
through  irregularity  of  shrinkage. 

We  now  pass  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  shrinkage  of 
metal  causing  warping  or  twisting,  due  to  unequal  cooling. 
In  this  phase  of  shrinkage  it  is  not  so  much  a  case  of  unequal 
distribution  of  metal,  as  a  question  of  conditions  relative  to 
the  position  of  casting.  Certain  articles  have  a  tendency  to 
twist  in  cooling,  but  if  turned  upside  down  in  casting  the 
result  would  be  quite  different.  For  example,  take  a  casting 
of  U  section  and  of  equal  metal,  and  first  cast  this  job 
with  the  bottom  down.  The  bottom  side  of  this  casting 
will  then  inevitably  remain  hot  considerably  longer  than 
the  sides,  and  the  result  is  always  found  to  be  that  both 
ends  will  incline  downwards  and  thus  concave  the  casting. 
Next  mould  a  second  one  from  the  same  pattern,  but  this  time 
with  the  bottom  upwards,  so  that  what  was  formerly  the  hottest 
part  of  the  casting,  is  now  more  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
and  consequently  brings  about  a  more  uniform  cooling,  a  result 
much  to  be  desired,  but  at  times  a  practical  impossibility. 
There  is  no  absolute  rule  that  must  be  followed  in  this  branch  of 
founding,  as  everything  cast  has  its  own  peculiarities  in  cooling, 
and  nowhere  do  we  find  the  trouble  of  warping  more  pro- 
nounced than  in  the  shrinkage  and  contraction  of  light  and 
hollow  castings.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  central  and 
inside  parts  of  castings  cool  less  rapidly  than  the  outside 
and  ends.  Hence  follows  the  concaving  of  castings  of  U 
section  when  cast  downwards,  the  extremities  of  the  castings 
being  turned  inwards  under  the  influence  of  the  unequal  rate 
of  cooling.  Therefore  the  camber  in  the  bedding  down  in 
this  position  of  sole-plates  and  bearers  of  U  section  requires 
to  be  deflected  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  bring  these  castings 
straight  from  the  mould. 

In  this  connection  the  responsibilities  between  foundry  and 
pattern  shop  are  frequently  disputed.  Wherever  this  is  the 
case,  it  ought  to  lie  with  the  founder  to  decide  the  question, 


SHEINKAGE  47 

unless  the  pattern  shop  assumes  responsibility  in  those  matters, 
a  thing  not  usually  done. 

Obviously,  castings  of  the  hollow  type,  whose  average 
thickness  of  metal  may  approximately  be  put  at  J-  in.,  do  not 
lend  themselves  to  the  troubles  of  shinkage  attending  the 
production  of  thicker  metal  castings.  And  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  if  there  be  a  plastic  condition  in  light  work,  with  castings 
that  are  newly  poured,  it  must  only  be  of  momentary 
duration.  Consequently  no  irregularities  of  shrinkage  causing 
"  draw,"  as  are  common  with  heavy  sectional  metal,  can 
possibly  take  place.  However,  those  engaged  in  hollow  work, 
may  think  they  have  plenty  to  contend  with  in  "  warping,''  a 
trouble  due  to  shrinkage  which  is  scarcely  known  to  some 
heavy  metal  workers. 

The  habit  that  some  light  metal  moulders  have  of  "  baring 
off  "  castings  at  certain  parts  to  secure  uniformity  of  cooling 
is  not,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  good  practice.  All  such  opera- 
tions, however  carefully  performed,  must  deteriorate  the  casting 
by  "shortening,"  or  unduly  hardening  the  grain  of  the  metal, 
which  at  best,  can  do  no  more  good  for  the  purpose  intended, 
than  is  to  be  got  from  the  more  rational  method  of  camber. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  internal  structure  of  all  metals, 
whether  cast  or  forged,  is  influenced  by  the  rate  of  cooling. 
Hence  it  comes  about  that  the  casting  that  is  allowed  to  cool, 
closed  up  and  undisturbed  in  the  moulding  box  in  which  it 
has  been  cast,  proves  to  be  a  casting  of  the  softest  texture  of 
metal  possible  and  a  superior  casting  for  all  concerned.  The 
best  and  most  experienced  moulders  know  that  conditions 
such  as  unequal  exposure  to  wind  and  weather,  gates  for 
running  and  rising  and  where  to  place  them,  position  of 
casting,  inequality  in  the  dampness  of  the  sand,  and  perhaps 
two  castings  in  one  box  instead  of  one,  are  all  factors  to  be 
reckoned  with  in  securing  straight  castings  from  the  sand. 
These  are  not  trifles,  since,  for  example,  in  lengthy  castings, 
where  two  are  cast  side  by  side  in  one  box,  a  twist  sideways  is 
sure  to  follow.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  two  insides  of 
the  castings  are  longer  in  cooling  than  their  outsides. 

Design. — The  casting  illustrated  in  Fig.  25  has  four  equal 
sides.  Its  diagonal  bar  in  foundry  designing  is  exceedingly 


48 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


bad,  and  wherever  employed  gives  evidence  of  limited  know- 
ledge concerning  the  effects  of  shrinkage  in  castings.  Diagonal 
bars,  however  serviceable  in  structural  work,  are  at  all  times 
mischievous  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  castings.  Fig.  25 
shows  in  its  worst  form  the  results  of  unequal  shrinkage,  and 
the  casting  would  be  found  to  be  warped  or  unduly  strained,  if 
not  actually  broken. 

Fig.  26  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  better  way  of  strengthening 
a  casting,  and  experience  has  proved  that  results  are  more 
satisfactory  than  with  the  design  shown  at  Fig.  25,  but  while 
admitting  Fig.  26  to  be  superior,  both  are  objectionable, 
the  only  difference  being,  that  in  Fig.  26  the  strain  is  better 


FIG.  25. 
J 


FIG.  26. 


balanced  on  account  of  the  opposing  action  of  shrinkage  through 
the  additional  diagonal  bar,  which  brings  the  strain  from  the 
four  corners  to  the  centre  alike.  Again,  although  Fig.  26  has 
an  improved  balance  of  strain,  still,  with  a  casting  so  designed 
there  cannot  be  absolute  equality  of  shrinkage ;  but  another 
way  that  such  can  be  improved  is  by  plating  the  entire 
surface  over  with  proportionate  metal.  This  plating  of  the 
surface  tends  to  give  uniformity  of  shinkage,  although  not 
absolutely  so,  as  the  centre  has  the  last  of  the  pull  in 
shrinking.  Diagonal  design  from  corner  to  centre  is  not  advis- 
able ;  therefore,  wherever  diagonal  bars  are  designed,  their 
elasticity  is  improved  by  quarter  circles  as  shown  at  Fig.  27. 
This  is  a  capital  design  for  tank  plates,  and  is  better  when  not 
more  than  J  in.  to  1J  ins.  in  depth  for  the  plate  mentioned.  A 


SHRINKAGE 


plate  thus  designed  is  much  improved  in  elasticity,  a  factor  of 
considerable  importance  when  designing  cast  iron.  It  not 
infrequently  happens  that  the  projections  or  ribs,  as  shown, 
so  add  to  the  strength  of  the  casting  as  to  make  it  not  inferior 
to  a  plain  plate  double  the  thickness.  Thus  with  a  plate 
J  in.  thick  strengthened  with  the  projections  referred  to,  there 
will  be  greater  spring  or  resistance  than  is  possible  with  a 
plain  plate  1J  ins.  thick. 

In  the  case  of  the  design  shown  in  Fig.  25,  some  may  say 
that  the  diagonal  bar,  although  it  has  a  greater  length  to  travel 
in  shrinking,  will  do  so  proportionately,  and  that  all  in  the  end 
will  shrink  and  finish  as  one.  In  theory  this  may  be  true, 
but  in  practice  I  have  never  found  it  so,  and  in  this  particular 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  28. 


case  I  can  attribute  this  variation  of  shrinkage  to  nothing  but 
the  variation  of  cooling.  It  will  be  obvious  that  the  four  sides 
must  cool  first,  and  the  diagonal  bar,  being  enshrouded  with 
the  heat  from  the  outside  part  of  the  casting,  must  of  necessity 
shrink  in  the  wake  of  the  sides,  thus  causing  warping,  undue 
straining,  or  fracture  of  a  casting  of  the  type  of  Figs.  25  and  26. 

The  great  question  in  designing  for  the  foundry  is  to  see 
that  in  doing  so  all  parts,  as  far  as  it  is  practicable,  shall 
shrink  together.  Therefore,  to  rib  after  the  fashion  of  con- 
structional work  is  a  great  mistake,  and  anything  so  treated 
with  the  design  of  Figs.  25  and  26,  cannot,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  writer,  have  equality  of  shrinkage. 

Metals  from  1  in.  to  4  ins.  in  thickness,  of  design  shown  in 
Fig.  28,  I  never  saw  fail,  but  experience  has  proved  other 

F.  .  i; 


50  FACTS   ON   GENERAL   FOUNDRY   FRACTION 

designs  to  be  failures,  and  in  some  cases  failure  did  not  take 
place  until  the  castings  had  left  the  foundry,  and  as  might 
be  expected  resulted  in  serious  loss  to  all  concerned. 

Equality  of  Metal. — Although  not  always  possible,  equality 
of  metal  is  much  to  be  desired,  and  the  greater  equality 
the  less  undue  strain  will  follow  the  shrinkage  of  all  metals 
cast. 

Many  cases  could  be  cited  in  support  of  this,  but  the  most 
common  is  that  of  the  ordinary  belt  pulley  with  its  necessarily 
heavy  boss.  Every  practical  moulder  knows  that  it  would  be 
useless  to  expect  these  castings  to  keep  from  springing  or 
snapping,  unless  they  be  either  split  in  the  boss  or  other 
means  adopted  to  expedite  the  cooling  of  the  boss,  so  that  rim 
and  boss  may  cool  together. 

The  method  usually  adopted  in  facilitating  the  cooling  of 
the  boss  is  to  fettle  out  the  core  and  apply  cold  water  with 
discretion.  Some  engineers  have  an  aversion  to  the  use  of 
water  here.  They  maintain  that  cold  water  hardens  the  boss, 
thus  making  it  objectionable  for  tooling.  I  agree  that  unless 
the  water  be  applied  intelligently  it  will  work  mischief. 
However,  no  one  need  be  afraid  of  harm  being  done  if  they 
take  care  while  applying  the  water  to  see  that  the  boss  returns 
to  a  greater  heat  in  the  bore  than  it  possessed  when  receiving 
the  last  application  of  water.  Another  way  to  cool  these 
castings  evenly  is  to  take  off  the  cope  and  dig  a  gutter  round 
the  rim,  and  fill  this  with  hot  metal  in  order  that  the  rim 
may  retain  its  heat  for  a  greater  length  of  time,  the  object 
of  this  being  to  cool  rim  and  centre  uniformly  and  thus  prevent 
the  casting  from  springing  in  the  arms  or  rim.  This  method 
of  treatment  is  hardly,  perhaps,  the  ordinary  way  of  doing 
things,  but  it  illustrates  the  kind  of  device  moulders  sometimes 
have  to  employ  in  order  to  secure  good  castings  from  what 
of  necessity  are  badly  designed  patterns  so  far  as  shrinkage 
is  concerned. 

As  another  example  take  the  spur-wheel  type  of  castings 
which  are  fairly  proportioned  in  every  part,  the  boss  metal 
being  determined  by  the  thickness  of  metal  at  the  pitch  line 
of  the  teeth.  Yet,  when  we  consider  the  relatively  larger 
amount  of  heat  in  the  heavier  metal  of  the  centre,  and  that 


SHRINKAGE  51 

arms  and  rim  cool  first,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  there 
must  be  undue  straining  of  some  part  or  parts  of  the  casting. 

If  no  special  treatment  be  given  to  such  castings,  the  weak- 
ness invariably  locates  itself  about  the  centre  of  curve  on  the 
spokes  adjoining  the  rim,  and  this  defect  is  always  greater 
with  the  cross  section  spoke,  and  is  therefore  not  so  observable 
with  the  H  spoke  type  of  casting.  Needless  to  say,  the  splitting 
of  the  boss  goes  a  long  way  in  relieving  the  strain  which  would 
otherwise  be  on  the  rim,  the  splitting  being  done  by  plates 
or  cores,  the  latter  being  preferable.  I  have  never  seen  it 
necessary,  even  in  a  12-ft.  diameter  "  spur  wheel  "  and,  say, 
7  tons  weight,  in  cast  iron  to  split  in  more  places  than  between 
two  opposite  arms ;  but  were  anyone  to  attempt  even  a  much 
smaller  diameter  in  steel,  such  would  more  or  less  end  in 
failure,  if  split  in  only  two  places,  through  the  casting 
concaving  itself  out  of  truth,  thus  making  it  impossible  to 
gear  with  its  pinion.  Therefore,  assuming  a  six-spoked 
wheel  to  be  cut  in  two  places  Jor  cast  iron,  it  would  take  three 
in  steel  to  avoid  concaving. 

Camber  and  uniformity  of  cooling. — To  camber  a  pattern  in 
bedding  down  is  to  give  it  the  necessary  deflection,  in  order  that 
the  casting  made  therefrom  will  come  out  of  the  sand  without 
being  warped  or  twisted.  Practical  men 
are  aware  that  there  is  no  fixed  rule  to 
guide  them  here;  it  is  all  a  matter  of 
experience  gained  through  jobs  previously 
passing  through  their  hands,  and  even 
then  the  moulder  receives  surprises,  for 
it  does  not  always  happen  that  two  cast-  FIG.  29. 

ings,  made  from  the  same  pattern  and 
by  the  same  moulder  shrink  alike.  The  reasons  for  this  are 
various.  First  of  all  there  are  atmospheric  conditions  to 
contend  with.  For  an  example,  let  us  take  a  horizontal  engine 
bed  plate  (Fig.  29),  which  may  either  be  20  ft.  or  40  ft.  long— 
the  length  does  not  matter,  except  that  in  the  greater  length  the 
danger  of  warping  will  be  practically  doubled.  Now,  suppose 
one  end  of  the  casting  is  in  close  touch  with  the  door  of  the 
foundry,  and  a  strong  wind  blowing  on  this  exposed  part 
while  the  other  end  was  in  comparative  warmth,  it  is  evident 

E  2 


52  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

that  the  exposed  end  will  cool  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
rest  of  the  casting. 

Further,  if  we  reckon  the  camber  of  £  in.  on  a  20-ft.  length, 
of  Fig.  29,  that  is,  f  in.  deflection  in  the  centre,  any  alteration 
of  the  metal,  as  shown  at  A  A  in  Fig.  29,  would  have  to  he 
reckoned  with ;  that  is  to  say,  were  we  to  add  to  the  depth 
of  the  metal  on  the  base  AA  we  retard  the  cooling  of  this  part 
of  the  casting,  and  with  one-third  more  metal,  the  chances 
would  be  that  no  deflection  at  bedding  down  this  job  would 
be  necessary.  But  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  metal  was  reduced 
on  the  same  parts  by  the  same  proportion,  producing  an 
opposite  effect,  then  the  camber  in  such 
a  case  would  require  a  proportional  in- 
crease. 

The  foregoing  is  only  applicable  to 
those    sections    of    Figs.   29    and    30, 
when  cast   in   the   position   as   shown 
FIG.  30.  here.      The    gates   and    risers    should 

also    be    attended    to    so    that    these 

may  be  relieved  from  all  possible  gripping  on  the  bars  of 
the  cope  or  box  with  which  the  casting  is  covered.  And, 
should  a  casting  require  more  than  two  separate  flasks,  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  all  but  the  two  end  ones  during  cooling 
and  before  shrinkage  is  complete. 

Fig.  80,  although  of  a  similar  design  to  Fig.  29,  is  heavier 
metal  along  the  base,  besides  being  "  boxed."  If  in  bedding- 
down  the  pattern  for  such  a  casting  one  were  to  camber  by 
deflecting  the  middle,  as  referred  to,  this  would  be  exactly 
the  opposite  to  what  would  be  required  to  make  a  straight 
casting,  because  the  heavier  metal  on  the  top  side  of 
Fig.  30  makes  this  part  the  last  to  cool,  and  hence  the  last 
to  shrink. 

So  far  we  have  only  considered  uniform  design  with  the 
usual  attachments  for  binding  bolts,  cylinder  feet  and  pillow 
block  faces ;  and  wherever  there  is  nothing  more  than  these 
to  contend  with,  the  difficulty  of  making  straight  castings  is 
not  extraordinary.  But  the  tendency  in  these  days  is  to 
design  regardless  of  the  consequences  attending  shrinkage. 
It  has  now  become  quite  common  to  cast  on  to  the  sides  of 


SHRINKAGE  53 

castings  projections  of  various  forms  which  hitherto  were 
jointed  and  fitted,  thus  intensifying  the  danger  of  twisting  or 
warping  while  cooling. 

In  short,  we  have  complications  of  design  and  varieties  of 
thickness  in  one  casting,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  reduc- 
ing machining  and  fitting,  with  a  view  to  producing  the 
greatest  economy  possible.  This  may  be  so  far  correct  for 
the  departments  referred  to  ;  nevertheless,  these  attachments 
or  complications  have  made  moulding  more  than  ever  an  art, 
and  have  given  demand  for  a  degree  of  skill  and  ingenuity 
hitherto  unknown  in  the  trade. 

But  wherever  these  heavy  projections  occur,  and  are  likely 
to  be  considerably  longer  in  cooling  than  the  rest  of  the  cast- 
ing, dig  round  with  discretion  and  expose  these  parts,  and  so 
bring  about  uniformity  of  cooling  as  far  as  possible.1  Indeed, 
there  is  no  absolute  uniformity  of  cooling,  and  the  nearest  we 
can  get  to  this  is  in  a  straight  bar,  or  plain  plate  or  frame, 
and  even  the  centres  of  the  former  inevitably  keep  warmest 
until  shrinkage  is  completed.  Moreover,  a  straight  plate  and 
a  straight  bar  are  the  only  castings  that  I  can  think  of  that 
are  free  from  shrinkage  strains,  internal  and  external,  a  trouble 
so  common  to  castings  poured  with  every  kind  of  metal. 

But  although  founders  should  be  competent  to  overcome 
all  difficulties  caused  by  abnormal  design  or  attachments,  they 
ought  to  let  those  responsible  understand  that  these  difficulties 
and  complications  involve  much  risk  to  the  founder  ;  a  good 
understanding  between  the  drawing  office  and  the  foundry 
will  reduce  the  risk  of  loss  from  this  cause  to  a  minimum. 

Shrinkage  by  Premature  Exposure. — We  shall  but  briefly 
refer  to  this  part  of  the  subject,  although  its  importance  is 
great;  and  we  may  be  pardoned  by  what  has  previously 
been  stated,  if  we  confine  ourselves  for  the  present  to  castings 
which  may  have  been  lifted  from  the  sand  too  soon  or  too 
late.  With  many  castings,  that  are  prematurely  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere,  external  shrinkage  must  considerably 

1  In  cases  where,  through  unusual  inequalities  of  thickness  or  design  of 
soleplates,  such  means  do  not  give  sufficiently  uniform,  cooling  it  is  better 
to  "split"  in  some  convenient  part  rather  than  have  castings  unduly- 
strained  by  unequal  shrinkage. 


54  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTISE 

develop  before  internal  shrinkage  has  properly  begun,  and  is 
aggravated  when  valve-seats  and  other  internal  adjuncts  in 
effect  consign  a  casting  thus  treated  to  a  short  life,  if  nothing 
worse  happens,  through  such  unguarded  treatment. 

Castings  that  are  to  be  polished,  but  otherwise  plain,  even 
when  cast  with  iron  above  the  average  density  and  price,  if 
left  too  long  in  the  sand  bring  about  a  change  in  the 
condition  of  the  carbon,  and  instead  of  getting  a  polished 
casting  with  a  fairly  good  lustre,  we  get  a  dirty  speckled 
article,  an  eyesore  to  the  founder  and  a  short-lived  article 
to  the  buyer,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  belongs  to  the  anti-frictional 
grade  of  castings.  Thus  a  poor  and  cheap  brand  may  be 
improved  by  careful  treatment,  and  a  superior  and  costly  one 
spoiled  by  carelessness,  want  of  intelligence,  or  perhaps  both. 

Although  we  have  thus  specifically  stated  the  dangers 
attending  premature  lifting  of  castings,  and  also,  on  the 
other  hand,  shown  its  advantages  in  certain  cases,  it  is 
not  to  be  inferred  that  all  castings  are  injured  by  pre- 
mature lifting.  There  is  an  old  saying  which  says,  "  One 
man's  meat  may  prove  another  man's  poison ;  "  so  in  like 
manner,  one  casting's  imperative  treatment,  if  applied  to 
others,  would  in  many  cases  scrap  the  castings.  Thus  it  is 
that  castings  of  equal  thickness  and  absolutely  free  from 
irregular  shrinkage,  are  perfectly  safe  when  lifted  somewhat 
prematurely.  Straight  pipes,  railway  chairs,  and  such  like 
castings  are  free  to  be  dealt  with  in  the  matter  of  lifting  them 
from  the  sand,  after  being  cast,  as  circumstances  best  permit. 
Consequently,  the  subject  of  heat  treatment,  or  the  temper- 
ing of  castings,  although  absolutely  essential  for  some  work, 
is  unimportant  to  other  castings  in  the  trade. 

Slackening. — Castings  that  are  gripped  at  both  ends,  such 
as  is  the  case  with  long  columns  in  dry-sand,  have  no  need  to 
be  slackened  at  both  ends,  as  slackening  at  one  end  will  suffice. 
It  is  true  that  the  pull  in  such  cases  of  shrinkage  will  all  be 
from  and  towards  the  one  end.  But  with  things  in  normal 
condition  for  shrinking,  no  harm  can  befall  a  casting  thus 
treated,  while  the  unnecessary  trouble  of  slackening  at  both 
ends  is  saved. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  need  for  slackening  castings 


SHRINKAGE  55 

is  almost,  if  not  altogether,  confined  to  dry-sand  and  loam 
work  in  the  form  of  moulds  and  cores.  And  if  many  castings 
moulded  in  green-sand  were  made  in  dry-sand  or  loam  the 
need  for  slackening  would  be  imperative. 

Those  who  handle  loam  work  should  know  what  will  be  the 
total  amount  of  shrinkage  on  parts  requiring  "slackening," 
because  the  rigidness  of  loam  moulds  and  cores  compels  the 
relieving  at  times  of  some  parts  to  assist  the  casting  to 
contract.  And  for  this  reason  the  interspersion  of  loam 
bricks  is  frequently  resorted  to  ;  but  I  do  not  favour  such  a 
system  or  method  in  the  building  of  vertical  cores,  since  this 
must  at  all  times  be  a  source  of  weakness.  By  far  the  better 
way  is  to  distribute  the  equivalent  of  the  loam  brick  space 
throughout  the  joints  of  the  bricks  in  each  course  of  the 
structure,  and  by  doing  so  we  get  no  less  flexible  material  as 
a  whole,  and  a  positive  guarantee  against  weakness,  which 
accompanies  the  interspersion  of  loam  bricks  as  above 
mentioned. 

Loam  moulders  would  do  well  to  consider  this  division  of 
the  subject,  on  account  of  the  rigidness  of  the  materials  with 
which  their  work  is  moulded  ;  and  where  projections,  or  such- 
like, on  castings  have  to  travel  by  shrinking,  they  ought  to 
see  that  loam  brick  be  placed  next  to  the  metal.  Also,  a 
packing  of  ashes  between  the  joints  of  hard  brick  will  very 
much  facilitate  the  ease  and  safety  of  shrinkage. 

In  studying  Fig.  32,  which  is  supposed  to  represent  a 
cylindrical  casting  6  ft.  in  diameter,  with  bracket  attached, 
it  may  be  asked,  When  should  slackening  begin  ?  The  earliest 
possible  time  is  generally  late  enough,  and  with  the  job  in 
question  cherry-red  heat  would  be  some  time  past  before  the 
work  of  slackening  could  begin.  Of  course,  it  may  be  said 
by  many  that  slackening  is  not  necessary.  Moreover,  I  have 
even  come  across  men  who  maintained  that  they  had  seen  as 
much  evil  resulting  from  slackening  as  any  good  they  ever 
saw  it  do.  I  cannot  agree  with  this,  as  my  experience  is  all 
in  the  other  direction.  The  one  point  to  know  is  what  to 
slacken  and  what  to  leave  alone. 

The  barrel  core  in  Figs.  31  and  32,  or  any  other  similar 
core,  wil!  yield  to  the  extent  of  f  in.  or  f  in.  before 


56  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

shrinkage  is  complete.  True,  a  great  deal  depends  on  the 
intelligence  of  the  moulder  who  builds  the  core,  and  if  the 
metal  be  2  ins.  thick  the  danger  of  such  a  casting  crack- 
ing through  rigidity  of  core,  although  not  slackened,  might 
not  be  serious  ;  but  reduce  the  metal  to  1  in.,  then  slacken- 
ing becomes  an  absolute  necessity.  In  the  2-in.  metal  we 
may  assume  that  there  is  double  the  strength,  and  a  con- 
sequent elasticity,  which  gives  it  more  power  while  skrinking 
to  crush,  burn,,  and  destroy  the  vegetable  and  combustible 
elements  in  the  loam  from  which  the  core  is  made ;  but  with 
1-in.  metal  we  are  quite  safe  in  assuming  that  the  half  of  this 
destructive  power  is  lost  by  the  metal  being  closer  grained, 

and  as  a  natural  consequence 
its  elasticity  is  reduced  also, 
thus  making  it  impossible  to 
withstand  the  necessary  strain, 
consequent  on  f-in.  shrinkage 
on  the  core,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  81.  Then,  when  the 
metal's  power  to  crush  the  core 
ceases  before  its  work  is  done 
in  shrinking  and  the  limit  of 
elasticity  of  metal  is  gone,  no- 
thing can  save  the  casting  from 
FIG.  31.  snapping,  if  it  be  not  slackened, 

as  shown  at  the  arrow  (Fig.  31). 

This  consists  of  the  entire  removal  of  a  vertical  strip  of 
brick  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  core.  Immediately  after 
this  operation  the  top  should  be  covered  across  and  closed 
up  tightly  so  as  to  prevent  cold  air  playing  upon  the  part 
relieved.  This  done,  no  ill  can  possibly  attend  the  process 
of  slackening. 

Now,  as  to  the  vertical  shrinkage  of  the  job  in  question, 
and  as  shown  at  Fig.  32.  Supposing  this  job  to  be  about 
12  ft.  long,  which  would  produce  about  1J  ins.  of  shrinkage, 
this  means  the  top  flange  when  shrunk  must  be  nearer  the 
bottom  than  it  was  immediately  after  being  cast.  Such 
an  amount  of  shrinkage  shows  that  everything  likely  to 
interrupt  its  progress  phould  be  slackened,  otherwise  results 


SHEINKAGE 


57 


at  best  will  be  defective.  At  Fig.  32,  and  underneath  the  top 
flange  at  A,  is  seen  the  amount  of  slackening  required.  If  a 
plain  barrel  with  flanges  at  both  ends,  say,  12  ft.  long,  no 
matter  whether  a  loam  brick  is  built  underneath  the  top 
flange  or  not,  slackening  as  shown  ought  to  be  attended  to. 
But  with  a  bracket  E,  as  shown  in  same  figure,  slackening  is 
absolutely  imperative.  In  doing  so,  come  down  stepwise  from 
the  line  of  A,  and  get 
underneath  the  bracket  at 
C;  in  this  we  fulfil  the 
double  function  of  pre- 
venting it  from  cracking 
and,  ensuring  the  metal 
structure  from  being 
racked,  thus  improving 
what  is  naturally  the  weak- 
est part  of  the  casting. 
Care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  the  claw  or  flange 
of  the  bracket  D  has  full  •  FIG.  32. 

liberty   to    shrink,   other- 
wise the  barrel  may  concave  itself  on  this  part  of  the  bore 
which  would  mean  at  least  an  extra  "  cut "  while  "  boring," 
should  nothing  worse  happen. 

To  sum  up  this  question,  it  might  fairly  be  put  thus:  All 
which  has  been  said,  from  a  founder's  point  of  view,  resolves 
on  the  one  idea  of  uniformity  of  cooling,  for  if  founders  could 
get  this,  together  with  no  impediments  in  the  process  of 
shrinkage,  neither  warping,  concaving,  convexing,  .breakage, 
nor  burst  of  any  kind  could  happen. 


PKESSUKE  OF  MOLTEN  IRON  (FERROSTATIC  PRESSURE.1) 

Moulders  who  are  accustomed  to  work  by  rule  of  thumb 
generally  have  hazy  notions  as  to  the  influence  of  the  pressure 
of  the  fluid  metal  in  straining,  bursting,  or  lifting  the  cope  of 
a  mould.  This  haziness  is  probably  the  result  of  the  failure 
of  some  writers  to  apply  their  principles  to  the  everyday 

i  «  Ferrostatic  Pressure  "  is  here  suggested  as  a  convenient  term. 


58  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

wants  of  a  foundry.  It  is  only  in  the  hope  of  clearing  up 
some  of  these  difficulties  that  the  writer  has  ventured  to  touch 
upon  the  rudiments  of  this  subject. 

Pressure  on  the  Bottom  of  a  Mould. — All  liquids  exert  a 
pressure  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  they  are  placed, 
and  this  downward  pressure  depends  on  the  depth  of  liquid, 
and  also  on  the  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid.  It  is  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  area  of  the  bottom,  that  is,  it  does  not  matter 
in  the  least  whether  the  bottom  is  large  or  small,  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  is  just  the  same.  Since  the  liquids  with  which 
we  have  to  deal  have  large  specific  gravities,  this  downward 
pressure  is  very  considerable,  and  it  is  worth  while  to  compare 
it  with  that  produced  by  a  corresponding  quantity  of  water. 
A  column  of  water  1  in.  square  and  28  ins.  high  weighs  about  a 
pound,  and  consequently  if  this  column  is  placed  in  a  vertical 
position  there  is  a  pressure  of  1  Ib.  weight  at  the  bottom ;  in 
fact,  any  head  of  water  28  ins.  in  vertical  height  produces  a 
pressure  of  1  Ib.  weight  per  square  inch  at  the  bottom.  Thus, 
if  a  mould  were  filled  to  a  depth  of  28  ins.  with  water  every 
square  inch  of  the  bottom  would  be  subjected  to  a  pressure  of 
1  Ib.  weight,  no  matter  whether  the  sides  are  vertical  or  sloping 
inwards  or  outwards  ;  if  the  depth  were  56  ins.  the  pressure 
per  square  inch  would  be  2  Ibs.  weight,  and  so  on.  Now,  sup- 
pose this  same  mould  is  filled  to  the  same  depth  (28  ins.)  with 
fluid  iron,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  is,  roughly,  7,  i.e.,  fluid 
iron  is,  bulk  for  bulk,  7  times  as  heavy  as  water.  Each 
column  of  iron  1-in.  square  and  28  ins.  high  weighs  7  times 
as  much  as  the  same  quantity  of  water,  i.e.,  it  weighs  7  Ibs., 
and  consequently  there  is  a  pressure  of  7  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
on  the  bottom  of  the  mould.  If  only  filled  to  a  depth  of 
4  ins.  it  would  produce  the  same  pressure  as  a  depth  of  28  ins. 
of  water.  Thus,  in  casting  a  20-ft.  plunger — not  an  unusual 
length  in  these  days— there  is  a  pressure  at  the  bottom  of  the 
mould,  without  taking  into  account  depth  of  pouring  basin,  etc., 
equal  to  a  head  pressure  of  about  140  ft.  of  water,  i.e.,  about 
60  Ibs.  weight  per  square  inch. 

Pressure  on  the  Sides  of  a  Mould. — Every  fluid  exerts  a 
pressure  on  the  sides  of  its  containing  vessel,  and  this 
pressure  gets  gradually  greater  as  we  get  further  below  the 


PRESSURE   OF   MOLTEN   IRON  59 

surface.  Thus,  the  side  pressure  at  a  depth  of  2  ft.  is  twice 
that  at  1  ft.  below  the  surface.  In  the  case  of  a  mould 
filled  with  fluid  iron  the  side  pressure  at  a  depth  of  4  ins.  would 
be  1  ib.  weight  per  square  inch  ;  at  8  ins.,  2  Ibs.  weight,  and  so 
on.  These  figures  refer  to  vertical  depths  below  the  surface, 
and  not  to  actual  distances  along  the  sides,  if  these  are  sloping. 

Pressure  on  Floating  and  Submerged  Bodies. — Let  us  now 
consider  the  case  of  a  solid  body  completely  submerged  in  a 
fluid.  Here  the  fluid  exerts  a  pressure  on  every  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  body,  top,  bottom,  and  sides ;  and  the  result  of 
this  is  that  in  every  case  there  is  an  upward  pressure  trying 
to  push  the  body  out  of  the  fluid.  By  actual  experiment  it  is 
found  that  this  pressure  depends  only  on  the  size  of  the  body 
and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  fluid,  the  actual  value  of  the 
pressure  being  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  displaced  by 
the  submerged  body.  Consequently,  if  this  body  has  a  smaller 
specific  gravity  than  that  of  the  fluid — i.e.,  it  is,  bulk  for  bulk, 
lighter — this  upward  pressure  is  greater  than  the  weight  of  the 
body  and  so  the  body  is  pushed  upwards  until  it  floats.  The 
actual  force  moving  it  is  the  difference  between  this  upward 
pressure  and  the  weight  of  the  body  ;  this  moving  force 
may  be  called  the  lifting  power.  When  the  body  floats  it 
does  so  in  such  a  way  that  it  displaces  a  weight  of  fluid  just 
equal  to  its  own  weight — hence  the  lifting  power  has  become 
nothing.  If  the  body  and  the  fluid  have  the  same  specific 
gravity,  the  weight  of  the  body  and  this  upward  pressure  are 
exactly  equal,  and  consequently  the  body  will  stay  in  any 
position  in  which  it  happens  to  be  so  long  as  it  is  completely 
submerged.  If,  again,  the  body  has  a  greater  specific  gravity 
than  the  fluid,  its  weight  pulling  it  down  is  greater  than  the 
upward  pressure,  and  so  the  body  sinks.  In  all  cases  this 
upward  pressure  is  the  same,  no  matter  whether  the  body  is  a 
long  way  below  the  surface  of  the  fluid  or  whether  it  is  only 
just  submerged,  since  the  amount  of  fluid  displaced  is  always 
the  same. 

As  illustrations  of  these  points,  suppose  a  cube  of  wood  of 
1-ft.  edge  is  submerged  in  water.  The  weight  of  the  wood  is 
probably  about  45  Ibs.,  while  the  weight  of  water  it  would 
displace  when  submerged  is  63  Ibs.  Consequently,  there  is  a 


60 


FACTS  ON  GENEKAL'FOUNDKY    PEACTICE 


force  lifting  it  upwards  of  18  Ibs.  weight,  and  in  order  to  keep 
the  wood  underneath  the  water  it  must  be  pushed  down  with 
this  force  of  18  Ibs.  weight. 

Again,  4  cub.  ins.  of  iron  weigh  about  1  Ib. ;  when  submerged 
in  water  it  displaces  4  cub.  ins.  of  water,  and  this  only  weighs 
^  Ib. ;  consequently  the  iron  sinks,  its  apparent  weight  being 
now  f  Ib.  Now  let  us  consider  the  case  we  have  to  deal  with 
in  core  making.  The  specific  gravity  of  sand  is  about 
If,  that  is,  it  is  .roughly  one-fourth  that  of  iron,  and  hence 
sand  floats  in  fluid  iron  just  as  wood  floats  in  water,  since 
the  weight  of  the  sand  is  only  one-fourth  that  of  the  iron 
it  displaces.  Thus,  if  the  sand  core  weighs  10  Ibs.  the  iron 


Parting- 


Line    — 


116 


FIG.   33. 

displaced  weighs  40  Ibs.,  and  hence  an  additional  pressure  of 
30  Ibs.  weight  must  be  put  on  the  core. 

Pressure  due  to  Fluid  Metal  in  Gate. — As  soon  as  the  level 
of  the  fluid  metal  in  the  gate  is  above  the  parting  line 
(v.  Fig.  33)  this  additional  head  of  fluid  causes  an 
additional  pressure  on  all  parts  of  the  mould  not  only  on  the 
bottom  and  sides,  but  also  on  the  top.  Suppose  this  head  of 
fluid  is  8  ins.  (depth  of  cope  is  4  ins.),  this  additional  pressure 
is  2  Ibs.  weight  per  square  inch,  no  matter  what  the  size  of  the 
gate  may  be — i.e.,  both  side  and  bottom  pressures  are  increased 
by  2  Ibs.  weight  per  square  inch.  The  pressure  at  the  top 
is  borne  by  the  cope,  and  consequently  this  must  be  sufficiently 
weighted  to  withstand  a  pressure  of  2  Ibs.  weight  per  square 


PRESSURE   OF  MOLTEN   IRON 


inch.1  This  lifting  pressure  on  the  cope  is  confusing  to 
many  moulders,  who  do  not  distinguish  it  from  the  lifting 
pressure  due  to  sand  cores  when  submerged  in  fluid  iron.  In 
the  latter  case  the  pressure  depends  only  on  the  volume  of 
the  sand  core,  and  not  on  the  area  in  contact  with  the  cope, 
whereas  the  pressure  on  the  cope  due  to  the  metal  in  the 
gate  depends  on  the  area  of  the  surface  of  fluid  metal  in 
contact  with  it. 

Again,  suppose  the  mould  in  Fig.  34  is  12  ins.  square  and 
1  in.  deep,  the  cope  of  the  mould  has  an  area  of  144  sq.  ins., 
and  so  the  total  lifting  pressure  due  to  the  fluid  metal  in 
the  gate  will  be  288  Ibs.  weight  (i.e.,  2  Ibs.  per  square  inch). 
If  this  same  mould  were  placed  on  end,  the  area  of  the  cope 
in  contact  with  metal  would  only  be  12  sq.  ins.,  and  so  the 
total  pressure  to  be  borne  by  the  cope 
would  only  be  24  Ibs.  weight,  though  in 
each  case  the  weight  of  the  casting  is 
the  same.  In  this  connection  it  may 
be  emphasised  that  it  is  very  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  total  lifting 
pressure  and  pressure  per  square  inch. 

To  illustrate  further  some   of  these 
points  it  may  be  of  advantage  to  calcu- 
late  the  pressures  experienced  by  the   different   parts   of   a 
mould  in  a  few  special  cases. 

1.  A  solid  cube,  i.e.,  a  mould  1  ft.  square  and  1  ft.  deep 

completely  filled  with  molten  iron  (v.  Fig.  34). 
Pressure  on  bottom  per  sq.  in.  =  3  Ibs.  weight. 
Total  pressure  on  bottom  =  3  X  144   ==  432  Ibs. 

weight. 
Pressure   on  each  side  is  nothing  at   the  top,  but 

gradually  increases  to  3  Ibs.  at  the  bottom. 
Average  pressure  on  each  side,  per  square  inch  = 
1|  Ibs.  weight.     Total  pressure  on  each  side  =  1J 
X  144  =  216  Ibs.  weight. 

1  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  above  calculations  are  only 
approximate;  also  all  copes  must  be  weighted  according  to  risks  from 
velocity  or  other  contingencies  of  pressure  or  strain  during  the  process  of 
pouring  metal  into  moulds. 


FIG.  34. 


#TOfiWft**Vti 

^i^S| 


62  FACTS   ON   GENERAL   FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 

2.  A  mould  12  ins.  deep  X  12  ins.  square  with  core 
10  ins.  X  10  ins.  X  12  ins.  deep  in  centre,  plan  of 
which  is  shown  at  Fig.  35. 

Pressure  on  bottom  per  square  inch  (due  to  12  ins. 
head)  =  3  lbs.  weight. 

Total  pressure  on  bottom  =  44  X  3 

=  132  lbs.  weight. 
Average  pressure,  on  each   side,  per 

square  inch  =  1J  lbs. 
Total  pressure  on  each  side  =  Ij  X 

144  =  216  lbs.  weight. 
3.  A    mould    14    ins.     X     14    ins.     X 
14  ins.  deep  contains  a  sand  core 
12  ins.  X   12  ins.    X    12  ins.,  the 
level  of  fluid   metal   in  gate   being  8  ins.  above 
the  parting  line  (Fig.  33). 

Area  of  bottom  =  14  ins.  X  14  ins.  =  196  sq.  iris. 
Effective  head  of  fluid  iron  =  14  ins.  +  8  ins.  = 
22  ins. 

22 

.*.  Pressure  per  square  inch  =  -r-  =  5'5  lbs.  weight. 

.-.  Total  pressure  on  bottom  =  5'5  X  196  =  1,078  lbs. 

weight. 
Area   of   each   side    =   14   ins.    X    14   ins.  =   196 

sq.  ins. 

14 

Average  head  of  fluid  iron  =  —  +  8  =  15  ins. 

/.  Average  pressure  per  square  inch  =  —  =  3'75  lbs. 

weight. 
/.  Total  pressure  on  each  side  =  196   X   3*75   = 

735  lbs.  weight. 
Volume  of  sand  core  =  12  ins.  X  12  ins.  X  12  ins.  = 

1,728  cub.  ins. 

1728 
.*.  Fluid  iron  displaced  =  — ^—  =  432  lbs. 

Suppose  the  sand  core  to  weigh  108  lbs.,  then  the 
lifting  pressure  to  be  resisted  by  the  chaplets  = 
432  -  108  =  324  lbs.  weight. 


FEEDING   OR  THE   COMPRESSION  OP  METALS  63 

Area  of  metal  surface  in  contact  with  cope  =  14  ins. 
X  14  ins.  =  196  sq.  ins. 

Q 

Pressure  due  to  fluid  metal  in  gate  =  j  =  2  Ibs. 

.'.  Total  pressure  on  cope,  due  to  pressure  of  fluid 
metal  in  gate  =  2  X  196  =  392  Ibs.,  but  to  this 
must  be  added  the  lifting  pressure  due  to  core 
which  may  be  transmitted  to  cope  by  chaplets, 
i.e.,  324  Ibs. 

Therefore  the  total  lifting  pressure  will  be  392  +  324 
=  716  Ibs. 

FEEDING  OR   THE  COMPRESSION  OF  METALS 

Perhaps  no  branch  of  foundry  practice  has  given  rise 
to  more  controversy,  or  to  which  more  attention  has  been 
paid  in  trade  journals  than  that  of  feeding,  and  it  is 
proposed  in  this  chapter  to  put  into  concrete  form  what  has 
occurred  to  the  writer  in  practice  with  regard  to  the  feeding 
of  castings. 

To  ensure  success  a  founder  must  know  how  to  mix  and 
adapt  the  different  brands  of  iron  to  the  various  requirements 
of  the  castings  he  intends  to  make,  and  what  is  the  most 
suitable  pouring  temperature ;  but  the  question  of  the  after- 
treatment  of  castings  by  feeding  is  probably  of  still  greater 
importance ;  he  must  know  what  castings  should  be  fed,  and 
how  this  feeding  should  be  done.  The  subject  of  the  feeding  of 
castings  is  intimately  connected  with  that  of  shrinkage,  since 
it  is  the  shrinkage  of  metals  during  solidification  that  necessi- 
tates feeding.  There  are,  broadly  speaking,  three  stages  or 
transitions  in  the  cooling  of  metals  from  the  molten  state, 
viz.,  (1)  the  liquid  stage  ;  (2)  the  solidifying  stage,  during 
which  the  metal  is  in  a  more  or  less  plastic  or  viscous 
state ;  and  (3)  the  solid  stage ;  and  it  is  while  the  metal  is 
in  the  liquid,  and  the  second  or  plastic  stages,  that  feeding 
must  be  done. 

The  subject  of  feeding  resolves  itself  into  the  following 
problems :— (1)  Is  feeding  a  necessity?  (2)  What  class  of 
castings  should  be  fed  ?  (3)  How  is  feeding  to  be  done  ? 


64  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL   FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

(1)  In  answer  to  the  first  of  those  questions  we  are  safe 
enough  in  saying  that  all  castings,  with  but  few  exceptions,  are 
fed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  some  way  or  other,  and  the 
only  exceptions  are  those    of    extremely  light   metal,    where 
immediate   solidification   takes   place   with   uniform  internal 
shrinkage.      But,    taking   castings   outside   this    range,   the 
conditions  are  altogether  changed. 

A  mould  that  is  cast,  and  whose  metal  does  not  all  solidify 
immediately  such  as  is  the  case  with  varied  sections,  never- 
theless forms  its  outside  shell,  so  to  speak,  throughout,  but 
specially  at  its  extremities,  while  the  still  fluid  interior 
"  draws  "  from  the  basins  (where  no  "  emitting,"  as  referred 
to  later  on,  takes  place)  during  solidification.  This  first 
formation  of  solid  metal  and  plastic  interior  are  important 
factors  in  the  feeding  of  a  casting. 

It  is  true  there  never  can  be  a  fixed  rule  for  feeding,  as  every 
casting  brings  its  own  peculiar  wants  with  it,  and  so  does 
every  metal  with  which  a  mould  is  cast.  But  while  allowing 
for  these  conditions,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  feeding  is 
a  necessity,  and  whether  we  recognise  this  principle  or  not, 
castings  are  in  a  measure  fed  automatically,  and  not  in- 
frequently unknown  to  the  moulder  from  the  source  above 
mentioned. 

(2)  What  should  be  fed  ?     This  question  may  be  a  little 
ambiguous,  since  it  has  been  laid  down  as  a  principle  that 
feeding  is  a  necessity  in  the  solidification  of  metals.     This 
admitted,  it  goes  without  saying  that  there  can  be  but  few 
exceptions ;    one   of   those   exceptions   having   already   been 
referred  to  need  not  be  mentioned  again,  and  the  only  other 
that  I  have  ever  experienced  are  those  castings  in  which  the 
emitting  or  vomiting  of  fluid  metal  from  the  mould  takes  place 
due  to  the  expansion  of  malleable  spokes,  or  it  may  be  an 
occasional  core  expansion,  such  as  in  the  case  of  barrel- jacketed 
and  Corliss  cylinder  moulds,  with  their  complex  group  of  cores 
so  much  enshrouded  in  metal. 

As  an  example  of  malleable  spoke  expansion,  let  us  turn 
our  attention  to  the  casting  of  what  may  be  termed  the 
bicycle-spoked  pit-head  pulley,  or  wheels  similarly  spoked. 
It  is  known  to  those  with  experience  in  this  class  of 


FEEDING  OE  THE   COMPBESSION  OF  METALS          65 

work  that  immediately  on  casting  the  bosses  of  these 
castings  a  swelling  action  appears  in  the  basins,  and  not 
infrequently  a  vomiting  follows,  and  for  anyone  to  put  the 
feeder  through  the  riser  while  such  is  going  on  would  only 
aggravate  the  situation,  with  the  chances  of  losing  the  pulley 
entirely.  The  substitute  for  a  feeder  here  is  a  bucket  with 
water,  the  contents  of  which  are  judiciously  applied  to  the 
basins,  so  that  a  crust  may  be  formed  on  the  top,  this  crust 
to  be  used  for  the  controlling  of  the  emission  of  the  metal 
from  the  mould.  This  is  an  operation  that  cannot  go  under 
the  name  of  feeding,  although  it  is  at  times  erroneously 
termed  so.  The  stratagem  employed  for  solidifying  these 
bosses  is  outside  the  province  of  feeding  and  need  not  be 
further  referred  to  at  present. 

To  return  to  the  question  of  what  class  of  castings  should 
be  fed,  it  looks  a  little  elementary  to  say  that  wheel  bosses  of 
every  description  should  be  fed.  The  treatment  of  these  cast- 
ings but  trace  the  surface  of  the  question,  and  is  known  to  the 
juniors  of  the  craft.  It  is  among  the  cores  and  at  the  fillets 
of  attachments  and  projections  of  castings  that  moulders  must 
search  for  the  mischievous  parts  that  are  so  vital  to  hydrauli- 
cally-tested  castings,  and  thereby  gain  the  mastery  in  the  detail 
of  feeding. 

As  already  mentioned,  one  cannot  know  too  much  regarding 
the  importance  of  design,  a  thing,  I  am  sorry  to  admit,  few 
moulders  trouble  themselves  about.  Were  this  better  under- 
stood by  engineers  and  moulders  alike,  much  of  the  work  that 
is  scrapped  would  otherwise  be  good  castings.  It  is  true  the 
feeder  cannot  be  got  to  reach  all  parts  requiring  its  assistance ; 
but  other  means  can  be  applied,  and,  when  judiciously 
administered,  have  the  desired  effect. 

Again,  let  us  view  what  comes  directly  under  the  eye  of  the 
moulder,  and  suppose  we  take  a  length  of  pipe,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  36,  of  course  flanged  at  both  ends,  the  flange  B,  whose 
metal  is  proportionately  thicker  than  A,  is  the  last  part  to 
solidify.  This  being  so,  the  whole  casting,  as  it  is  settling 
down,  must  "draw"  from  flange  B,  so  favourably  situated  by 
its  extra  height  and  increased  fluidity  for  drawing,  and  doing 
damage. 

F.P.  F 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


Obviously,  if  this  flange  acts  as  a  feeder  for  the  whole  of  the 
casting,  the  flange  in  turn  must  be  fed  from  the  basin,  and 
were  this  not  so,  the  inevitable  "draw"  or  vacuum  holes 
would  undoubtedly  be  on  the  top  side  of  the  flange.  But  the 
man  who  knows  what  should  be  fed  could  not  be  deceived 
here,  as  assuredly  his  experience  would  compel  him  to  be  careful 
about  his  riser  basin,  and  with  ample  room  in  his  feeding- 
gate  to  admit  of  the  feeder  being  properly  used  nothing  but 
complete  solidification  of  this  flange  would  be  the  result. 

(3)  In  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  divisions  there  is 
shown  the  necessity  for  feeding,  and  in  the  second  is  also 
shown,  in  a  very  brief  manner,  what  to  feed ;  but,  as  has  been 


FIG.  36. 

previously  stated,  individual  castings  require  individual  treat- 
ment, because  the  details  of  our  methods  are  not  infrequently 
a  matter  of  compulsion  rather  than  of  choice. 

Examples  could  be  given  by  the  score,  but  perhaps  one  or 
two  may  suffice.  (1)  Take  the  case  of  a  cylinder  cast  on  end 
(see  Fig.  70),  or  in  the  vertical  position,  with  feet  and  other 
attachments  cast  on  it ;  were  such  a  casting  not  well  fed 
by  some  means  or  other,  the  possibility  of  getting  it  solid 
about  the  flange,  and  specially  about  the  feet  of  the  top  end, 
would  be  practically  nil.  (2)  Cast  the  same  cylinder  in  the 
horizontal  position  and  these  defective  sh  rink-holes,  some- 
'times  erroneously  termed  blowholes,  entirely  disappear.  In 
the  former  position,  which  is  the  vertical,  we  have  "  centralisa- 
tion of  shrinkage,"  as  the  entire  course  of  shrinkage  is  all 
towards  the  bottom  end,  and  continues  throughout  the 


FEEDING  OR  THE  COMPEESSION  OF  METALS          67 

different  transitions  of  the  metal  until  absolute  shrinkage  is 
accomplished. 

Again,  and  to  drive  this  point  a  little  further,  let  us  imagine 
for  a  moment  that  immediately  the  mould  is  cast  there  is 
a  stoppage  of  supply  of  fluid  metal  from  the  pouring  and  riser 
basins  to  mould.  There  could  then  be  but  one  result,  namely, 
a  more  or  less  shell  form  of  a  flange  would  take  the  place  of 
what  would,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  sinking-head  and 
feeding,  have  been  a  solid  casting.  The  result  from  such  a 
procedure  must  be  manifestly  clear,  and  again  shows  feeding 
at  times  to  be  a  necessity  in  some  way  or  other.  So  much 
for  the  centralisation  of  shrinkage. 

Now,  to  "  decentralise  "  or  distribute  the  above  effect,  the 
horizontal  position  is  the  best  and  will  do  it  most  completely. 
For,  suppose  the  entire  space  of  the  shrink-holes  on  the  top 
end  of  the  cylinder  (vertically  cast)  accounts  for  anything 
inside  of  half-a-dozen  pounds,  this  does  not  mean  much 
throughout  the  barrel,  port,  steam-chest,  and  other  attach- 
ments of  a  cylinder  lying  in  the  horizontal  position ;  indeed, 
all  the  loss  of  weight  due  to  the  space  referred  to  might 
easily  be  compensated  for  by  the  improved  uniform  density  of 
the  metal  which  the  horizontal  position  of  casting  produces. 

Brass  moulders  who  have  to  do  with  the  finer  metals  know 
full  well  the  difference  between  vertical  and  horizontal  casting. 
Work  which,  in  cast  iron,  is  imperatively  cast  in  the  vertical 
position  could  not,  in  many  cases,  be  so  cast  in  brass,  just 
because  of  its  greater  shrinkage  when  compared  with  iron. 
Not  all  the  hot  metal  from  crucible  feeding  or  otherwise  could 
equal  the  good  effect  of  horizontal  pouring  with  gates  sufficiently 
large  to  give  automatic  feeding  which  may  be  assisted 
by  the  rod,  if  thought  necessary.  Further,  how  is  feeding 
to  be  done?  Many  will  doubtless  answer  this  question  by 
saying  there  is  but  one  way  of  doing  it,  and  that  is  to  feed 
with  a  rod  varying  in  thickness  according  to  the  necessities  or 
wants  of  a  casting  requiring  to  be  fed.  This  is  but  part  of  the 
answer  to  the  question  at  issue.  Some  say  that  no  matter 
what  may  be  the  details  of  a  casting,  feeding  results  are  at  all 
times  more  satisfactory  when  one  feeder  only  is  employed. 
To  my  mind  those  who  argue  thus  must  have  but  a  limited 

F  2 


68 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTICE 


experience  in  the  habits  of  metals  and  the  production  of 
general  machinery  and  pump  castings. 

It  is  perfectly  true  that  one  feeder  applied  to  any  mould 
just  cast  will  let  its  influence  be  felt  with  every  stroke  of  the 
rod.  This  can  easily  be  verified  by  the  motion  in  the  basins. 
But  while  admitting  this,  I  am  far  from  admitting  that  feeding, 
in  the  sense  of  the  word,  is  being  performed  at  this  juncture. 
No,  not  until  this  period  of  motion  is  past  does  the  real  work  for 
the  feeding  rod  begin.  Here  we  see  that  feeding  is  a  purely 
local  operation,  and  the  rod,  as  wielded  up  and  down  by  the 
moulder,  becomes  more  a  mechanical  compressor,  which  practi- 
cally has  no  power  to  feed,  force,  or  compress  beyond  the 
immediate  region  in  which  it  is  being  worked. 

This  is  really  the   case  with  castings  of  irregular  thick- 


FIG.  37. 


nesses,  a  thing  not  infrequently  met  with  in  the  foundry, 
and  by  referring  to  Fig.  37  will  be  seen  the  meaning  of  what 
is  stated  here.  As  will  be  seen,  this  figure  illustrates  the  effect 
produced  by  disproportionate  metal,  as  seen  at  A, B,  C  (Fig.  37). 
Snug  C  is  proportioned  with  the  core  running  through  it,  which 
enables  it  to  solidify  with  the  general  body,  and  which  secures 
for  it  much  the  same  texture  as  the  part  referred  to. 

It  will  be  readily  conceded  that,  before  we  could  expect  to 
secure  solidity  in  snugs  A  and  B,  feeding  must  be  resorted  to. 
Suppose  also  we  just  applied  the  feeder  to  A,  which  produces 
the  homogeneousness  shown,  and  allowed  B  to  take  its  chance, 
"  draw  "  and  sponginess  would  inevitably  follow,  as  illustrated. 
Why  is  this  so  ?  It  is  because  of  the  fact  that  the  straight 
passage  between  these  snugs  A  and  B  has  become  solidified 
while  the  snugs  are  still  comparatively  plastic ;  and  with  but  one 
feeding  rod  operating  on  snug  A,  and  snug  B  having  neither 


FEEDING  OB  THE  COMPKESSION  OF  METALS          69 

riser  nor  basin  attached,  of  a  surety  "  draw"  and  sponginess, 
as  previously  stated,  would  be  the  result. 

Others  say  that  to  feed  with  a  rod  is  a  great  mistake ;  just 
let  the  basins  be  drowned  with  cold  water,  and  the  core 
expansion  in  moulds,  such  as  cylinder  castings,  etc.,  will  be 
ample  for  all  wants  in  feeding.  And  here  let  me  repeat  what 
I  have  previously  stated  elsewhere,  that  cores  or  any  other 
interspersion  within  a  mould,  such  as  malleable  iron,  will, 
beyond  certain  limits,  in  my  opinion,  never  feed  a  casting  solid. 
Why  this  cold-water  bath  fallacy  for  the  chilling  of  basins,  as 
I  have  seen  it  put,  I  know  not.  But  supposing,  and  for  the 
sake  of  convenience  we  admit,  the  above  to  be  capable  of 
checking  the  emission  of  metal  from  a  mould,  what  after  that  ? 
A  mould  cannot  emit  and  admit  metal  at  one  and  the  same 
time.  Emission  is  only  possible  under  fluidity,  and  not  until 
plasticity  of  metal  is  reached  does  internal  shrinkage  practically 
begin,  and  then  the  work  for  the  feeder  begins  in  earnest  also. 
Clearly  it  will  be  seen  that  the  entire  cause  of  feeding  is 
shrinkage ;  consequently  there  can  be  no  feeding  from  the 
opposite  action,  which  is  expansion.  Hence,  all  that  this  latter 
force  can  or  may  do  is  to  increase  the  density  of  the  skin  of  a 
casting,  but  can  be  no  aid  whatever  in  densifying  parts  that 
have  to  set  after  the  general  body  of  metal  in  any  casting  has 
solidified. 

(4)  In  the  preceding  parts  of  this  subject  the  treatment 
of  castings  by  feeding  has  been  dealt  with  only  as  it  concerns 
those  that  are  covered  by  flask,  cope,  or  top  part ;  but  in 
order  that  every  method  of  casting  may  be  embraced  in  this 
subject,  I  shall  now,  although  it  may  be  somewhat  imperfectly, 
deal  with  what  is  known  in  the  trade  as  "  open-sand  casting." 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  say  that  this  class  of  work  is  but 
a  very  poor  species  of  moulding,  and  were  this  a  subject  in 
which  moulding  is  of  primary  importance,  it  would  be  un- 
necessary to  say  anything  here  on  the  matter  of  open-sand 
castings.  Feeding  or  compression,  however,  is  a  question  of 
the  habits  of  metal,  and  it  is  hoped  that  even  in  open-sand 
work  there  may  be  found  much  that  is  of  interest,  especially 
as  it  affords  simple  illustrations  of  some  important  principles. 

It  may  be  said  that  we  cannot  feed  without  a  rod,  and  as 


70 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 


open-sand  work  has  no  covering,  how  can  it  be  fed  ?  But,  as 
is  well  known,  there  are  more  ways  of  compressing  and  densi- 
fying  metal  than  by  means  of  the  mechanical  force  applied  by 
the  feeding  rod.  Thus  in  the  case  of  a  sugar-mill  roller  the 
long  and  laborious  job  of  feeding  (sometimes  as  much  as  one 
and  a  half  hours  being  spent  on  this  work),  with  its  frequently 
unsatisfactory  results,  could  be  dispensed  with,  as  experience 
has  shown  very  superior  results  can  be  obtained  by  pouring 
these  castings  open. 

-  The  feeder  in  this  method  is  the  ladle  with  its  hot  metal 

supply  used  to  keep  this 
end  of  the  casting  longest 
fluid,  and  consequently  doing 
its  best  to  give  all  that  the 
casting  is  craving  for.  Thus 
we  get  by  this  process  of  feed- 
ing improved  density  of  metal 
at  a  minimum  of  cost,  both  to 
the  employer's  purse  and  the 
moulder's  body.  The  sinking- 
head  necessary  for  this  method 
need  not  be  of  greater  height 
than  that  which  is  required 
for  pouring  these  castings 
flasked  with  pourer  and  riser 
basins  in  the  usual  way ;  and 
by  a  little  stratagem  in  the 
formation  of  the  sinking-head  there  need  be  no  great 
difficulty  in  breaking  it  off  with  a  direct  drop  of  the  "  ball." 

The  casting  of  a  steel  ingot  is  of  interest  in  this  connection. 
Something  like  25  per  cent,  of  these  rough  castings  have  in  some 
cases  to  be  cut  off  owing  to  the  sponginess  of  their  upper  parts. 
This  sponginess  is  the  effect  of  shrinkage,  and  may  be  partly 
caused  by  the  presence  of  blowholes  or  gas  bubbles.  Fig.  38 
is  supposed  to  represent  an  ingot  casting  while  still  perfectly 
fluid,  and  indicates  that  the  casting  is  then  practically  homo- 
geneous throughout.  As  the  metal  cools,  solidification  com- 
mences from  the  sides,  and  perhaps  the  bottom  also,  which  are 
in  contact  with  the  mould,  and  soon  after  a  crust  of  solidified 


N  EM  KS1  RN  tSI  RSI  KXV^I  KMSI BS 


^\  •"'•' 


FIG.  38. 


METAL   MIXING 


71 


metal  forms  on  the  open  top  of  the  ingot.  We  have  thus 
a  solid  shell  of  steel  with  a  liquid  interior,  and  solidification 
proceeds  from  the  outside  inwards,  the  part  of  the  ingot  which 
is  the  last  to  solidify  being  the  upper  central  portion.  During 
solidification  and  subsequent  cooling  shrinkage  takes  place, 
and  the  still  molten  interior  is  called  upon  to  make  good 
the  contraction  of  the  solid 
exterior,  with  the  result  that 
there  is  a  very  considerable 
pull  on  the  upper  and  central 
parts  of  the  ingot,  resulting 
in  cavities  and  sponginess  as 
seen  at  Fig.  39.  If  arrange- 
ments were  made  to  keep  the 
top  of  the  ingot  molten  until 
the  last,  then  although  the 
head  would  sink,  this  molten 
metal  would  feed  the  rest  of 
the  ingot  and  prevent  the  for- 
mation of  draw  or  shrinkage 
cavities.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered also  that  during  solidifica- 
tion the  impurities  in  the  metal 
tend  to  become  concentrated  or  segregated  in  those  parts  of 
the  ingot  which  remain  fluid  longest,  while  the  gases  held 
n  the  molten  metal  and  liberated  during  cooling  cause  blow- 
holes, which  are  more  numerous  in  that  portion  of  the  ingot. 
The  upper  central  part  of  the  ingot,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  39,  is 
thus  spongy,  contains  many  holes  caused  by  shrinkage,  is  more 
impure  than  the  rest  of  the  ingot,  and  liable  to  contain  many 
blowholes.  For  open-sand  feeding  see  also  Figs.  131  and  132. 


FIG.  39. 


METAL  MIXING 

Mixing  and  adapting  metal  will  always  be  of  prime 
importance  in  the  foundry,  but  before  a  man  is  capable  in 
this  branch  of  founding,  he  must  first  of  all  have  a  knowledge 
of  what  duty  is  expected  of  the  finished  casting  or  castings. 
In  addition  he  will  need  to  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 


72  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

common  brands  of  pig  iron  available  to  the  founder,  an  experi- 
ence indispensable  to  those  responsible  for  the  output  of  good 
castings.  With  foundry  metals  there  are  two  classes  with 
regard  to  fluidity  (the  question  of  degrees  need  not  trouble 
us)- — the  first  includes  metals  high  in  so-called  impurities,  but 
somewhat  deficient  in  density,  and  the  second  those  less  fluid 
which  oxidise  rapidly.  Safety,  from  a  founder's  point  of 
view,  lies  in  the  former  being  poured  into  moulds  of  intricate 
and  thin  metal  section  for  pipes  and  lengthy  castings  where 
fluidity  is  of  paramount  importance  and  density  is  a  subsidiary 
consideration.  Dense  metals  that  oxidise  rapidly  belong  to 
the  anti-frictional  class,  and  are  as  a  rule  favoured  when  there 
are  "  short  runs  "  and  for  contracted  surfaces,  such  as  cylinders, 
rams,  and  such  castings  as  are  bored.  They  are  also  suitable 
for  castings  which  necessitate  the  vertical  position  in  pouring, 
although  not  infrequently  applied  in  horizontal  casting,  for 
which  under  special  circumstances  they  may  be  quite  suitable. 
In  founding,  as  in  many  other  processes  of  manufactures, 
we  are  kept  right,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  natural  causes,  for 
not  even  the  uninitiated  would  expect  to  pour  lengthy  and  thin 
castings  with  a  metal  that  oxidises  rapidly,  such  as  a  good 
cylinder  metal  should  do,  or  cold-blast  and  hematite  in  suit- 
able proportions.  And  the  market  price  of  metals  is  not  with- 
out its  guidance  in  the  selecting  or  the  adapting  of  brands  to 
be  used  in  the  making  of  castings,  because  the  best  cold-blast 
cylinder  metal,  which  approximately  costs  twice  as  much  as 
common  foundry  grey  iron,  together  with  the  enhanced  price 
of  hematite,  offers  a  natural  barrier  against  the  mistake  of 
using  those  for  purposes  other  than  that  for  which  they  were 
intended. 

Mixing  Iron  for  a  Jobbing  Foundry. — We  purpose  dealing 
here  with  the  work  of  ordinary  jobbing  foundries,  large  and 
small,  where  the  work  done  may  include  engine  work,  builders' 
castings,  agricultural  or  hollow  work.  There  is  no  limit  to 
the  variety  in  some  jobbing  foundries,  and  obviously  it  will 
not  be  possible  to  take  all  the  items  which  might  come  within 
the  scope  of  this  section  on  "Metal  Mixing." 

From  a  scientific  point  of  view  mixing  by  analysis  should 
give  the  most  satisfactory  results,  and  to  ignore  this  method 


METAL  MIXING  73 

of  working  would  be  unfair  to  the  spirit  of  what  is  known  as 
modern  foundry  practice.  So  far,  however,  it  is  only  in  a  few 
large  foundries  that  its  practice  has  become  possible  ;  indeed, 
it  is  very  questionable  if  it  can  be  entertained  in  the  generality 
of  jobbing  foundries.  Those  firms  who  make  tub  casting  a 
specialty,  and  melt  metal  by  crucible,  and  others  who  have 
a  cupola  set  aside  for  specific  work  such  as  cylinders,  and 
other  heavy  pieces  of  10,  20,  or  30  tons,  have  no  difficulty  in 
determining  their  mixtures  by  analysis,  and  acting  accordingly ; 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  shop's  cast  has  to  be  made 
from  one  cupola,  and  here  there  is  opportunity  for  planning 
as  to  the  best  times  of  charging  to  meet  the  various  wants  of 
the  work  that  is  on  the  floor.  Hence  it  is  that  the  founder 
prefers  to  cast  cylinders  with  metal  from  the  second  and 
consecutive  charges  if  need  be,  because  the  first  charge  carries 
an  abnormal  amount  of  dirt ;  besides  it  is  usually  dull  in  the 
first  tap  of  two  or  three  ordinary  shank  ladles,  but  improving, 
as  a  rule,  after  each  successive  tap,  till  by  the  time  the  first 
charge  of,  say,  12  cwts.  has  passed  through  the  tapping  hole, 
the  metal  following,  assuming  things  are  normal,  should  be  in 
the  best  of  condition  for  cylinder  casting.  In  charging  the 
cupola  for  cylinders,  it  is  better  to  have  in  the  cupola  a 
charge  of  cylinder  metal  in  excess  of  that  required  for  casting 
the  job.  This  will  act  as  a  safeguard  in  keeping  the  cylinder 
metal  correct,  and  will  also  serve  to  cast  other  work  throughout 
the  floor  requiring  similar  dense  and  strong  metal  which  will 
give  a  good  polish. 

As  we  have  indicated,  the  jobbing  foundryman  cannot 
determine  or  readily  get  at  results  by  analysis ;  therefore,  he 
must  trust  the  ironmaster  to  give  him  what  he  asks  and  pays 
for,  a  thing  common  to  all  markets  in  buying  and  selling; 
still,  if  he  wants  good  castings  he  must  have  suitable  metal. 
But  after  all  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  selection  and  adaptation 
rather  than  inherent  good  and  bad  qualities.  Some  founders 
seem  chronically  pessimistic  as  to  their  metals,  while  others 
do  not  make  a  serious  affair  of  it,  but,  knowing  that  all  metals 
smelted  have  their  place  in  founding,  seem  to  know  from 
experience  how  to  use,  mix,  and  adapt  them.  All  the  same, 
some  metals  are  more  serviceable  than  others ;  therefore, 


74  PACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDBY  PRACTICE 

those  responsible  in  the  foundry  will  doubtless  select  their  iron 
with  care.  Experience  with  fractures,  aided  by  the  magnify- 
ing glass,  enables  a  man  to  decide  fairly  accurately  what  may 
be  expected  from  ordinary  foundry  irons,  irrespective  of 
analysis  or  other  tests.  Moreover,  the  training  of  the  eye 
required  to  gain  all  the  information  possible  from  the  appear- 
ance of  the  fluid  surface  in  the  ladles  is  an  education  which 
chemists  and  practical  founders  alike  would  do  well  to  acquire. 
Cylinders  and  Engine  Parts. — Jobbing  foundries  generally 
do  a  good  bit  in  engine  work,  large  and  small,  and  in  this 
class*  of  work  there  are,  as  a  rule,  usually  but  two  kinds  of 
metal  wanted,  viz.,  frictional  and  anti-frictional,  i.e.,  soft  and 
hard.  The  question  may  be  asked,  Can  castings  be  poured 
with  one  mixture  only,  that  is,  with  either  scrap  or  crude  pig  ? 
Our  answer  is  a  qualified  affirmative,  but  the  life  of  such 
parts  as  cylinders,  slides,  and  bearings  would  be  com- 
paratively short  if  they  were  cast  entirely  from  pig  iron  of  an 
ordinary  kind,  which,  although  fluid,  is  soft  and  unsuitable  for 
anti-frictional  castings.  On  the  other  hand,  with  a  good  scrap 
for  machinery  castings  in  the  production  of  small  engine 
castings,  no  one  need  have  much  fear.  Jealously  guard  against 
using  old  pots,  pans,  pipes,  and  hollow-ware  scrap  in  the  pro- 
duction of  polished  castings.  Such  can  only  be  judiciously 
mixed  for  casting  goods  with  unpolished  parts,  although  they 
may  do  fairly  well  where  only  a  facing  or  some  such  machined 
part  of  a  casting  is  necessary.  If  the  pipe  scrap  happens  to 
be  thick  it  is  likely  that  fluidity  will  be  high,  because  these 
goods,  as  a  rule,  are  cast  with  metals  containing  a  high 
percentage  of  metalloids.  As  to  cylinder  metal  prepared  under 
the  conditions  indicated,  some  of  the  best  cylinders  we  have 
ever  seen  bored  were  castings  in  which  metal  was  taken  from 
the  scrap-heap  dumped  down  in  the  foundry  yard.  However, 
we  do  not  recommend  the  take-it-as-it-comes  method,  even  to 
experienced  men.  A  good  cylinder  metal  can  be  mixed  from 
brands  suitable  for  general  machinery  castings.  Equal  parts 
of  Derbyshire  and  Scotch,  with  about  one-fourth  of  hematite 
melted  and  run  into  pigs  once  or  twice,  can  be  recom- 
mended. Again,  one  may  make  a  local  selection  of  similar 
brands  to  those  mentioned,  which,  with  a  small  percentage  of 


METAL  MIXING  75 

white  iron  and  a  judicious  proportion  of  cold-blast,  will,  when 
mixed,  melted,  and  run  into  pig  moulds,  make  a  very  superior 
metal  for  cylinders.  But  of  this  there  is  no  end.  Every 
cylinder  expert  claims  to  have  some  secret  either  in  mixing, 
melting,  or  temperature ;  indeed,  the  best  cold  blast  specially 
smelted  for  cylinder  metal,  according  to  these  people,  is 
inferior  to  their  own.  Be  that  as  it  may,  experience  admits 
of  no  such  thing  as  crude  pig  metal  being  safe  and  suitable  for 
the  casting  of  cylinders  of  any  description. 

In  a  foundry  where  loam  work  is  done,  the  metal  as  mixed 
for  cylinders  can  be  used  for  casting  building  plates,  rings,  and 
core  irons,  and  then  broken  up  after  they  have  done  the  work 
for  which  they  were  intended,  and  used  for  the  casting  of 
cylinders.  The  saving  here  will  be  obvious,  and  we  have  as 
much  confidence  of  success  in  this  plan  of  preparation  as  in 
using  the  metal  mentioned  after  it  has  been  run  into  pig 
moulds  as  a  preparation  for  cylinder  castings.  It  is  an  old 
foundry  saw  which  says  that  it  takes  a  bad  cylinder  to  make 
a  good  one.  However,  carefully  selected  scrap,  or  a  special 
preparation  as  has  been  stated,  is  indispensable. 

Other  engine  castings,  such  as  slide  blocks,  slippers,  slide 
valves,  and  bearings,  may  be  poured  with  equal  parts  of  scrap 
and  pig,  but  if  poured  with  cylinder  metal,  so  much  the 
better  for  the  life  and  usefulness  of  the  castings.  Engine 
castings  other  than  those  already  mentioned  are  usually  cast 
with  a  mixture  of  three  of  pig  iron  to  one  of  scrap,  or  half  and 
half  of  these  two  metals  will  be  found  fairly  suitable,  even 
when  "  runs  "  are  somewhat  lengthy,  such  as  is  usual  with 
ordinary  engine  sole  plates  or  bottoms.  But  no  hard  and  fast 
line  can  really  be  drawn  here,  because  circumstances  alter 
cases.  No.  1  Scotch  is  recognised  everywhere  as  the  greatest 
friend  the  founder  has  in  restoring  fluidity  to  scrap  metal,  but 
an  indiscriminate  use  of  it  has  frequently  proved  it  to  be  the 
founder's  foe  as  well.  Many  founders  favour  it  not  only 
because  of  its  graphitic  nature,  but  because  it  is  a  strong  iron, 
and  is  low  in  shrinkage.  It  is,  however,  a  dangerous  metal  if 
poured  at  too  low  a  temperature,  as  the  graphite  has  a 
tendency  to  separate  as  kish,  and  in  this  way  does  much 
mischief.  Its  bad  effects  come  out  most  prominently  in  the 


76  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

points  of  the  teeth  in  spur  and  pinion  wheels,  and  other 
extremities.  With  a  mixture  of  graphitic  iron  and  scrap, 
approximately  on  the  lines  described,  much  depends  on  the 
speed  of  pouring,  the  temperature  of  the  metal,  and  the 
gating,  which  last  is  an  important  and  vital  factor  in  the 
pouring  of  all  metals  into  moulds. 

Agricultural  Castings. — This  class  of  work,  such  as  plough- 
shares and  breasts,  is  sometimes  cast  in  chills,  while  other 
founders  make. good  castings  in  sand.  Of  course  these  must 
be  very  hard,  and  for  that  purpose  a  small  percentage  of  white 
iron  to  each  charge  in  the  cupola  is  an  advantage  when  mixed 
with  scrap  and  pig  iron.  In  the  moulding  of  these  castings, 
without  chills,  a  high  percentage  of  coal  dust  mixed  in  the 
facing"  sand  is  necessary ;  this  and  a  good  coating  of  blacking 
dusted  on  thoroughly  sleaked  moulds  are  factors  in  improving 
the  castings.  Whether  agricultural  work  as  suggested  is  cast 
in  iron  chills  or  sand  moulds,  hardness  is  the  essential  feature 
to  be  aimed  at  and  secured.  If  no  white  iron  is  added  to  the 
mixture,  whatever  it  may  be,  then  the  moulder,  by  his  treatment 
of  the  mould  on  the  lines  suggested,  can  do  much  to  bring 
about  the  desired  effect ;  in  addition,  he  may  work  the  facing 
sand  as  damp  as  safety  will  permit. 

Of  course  a  good  deal  depends  on  how  castings  are  treated 
to  produce  hardness  compatible  with  safety.  The  man  of 
experience  may  have  results  from  selected  scrap  quite  superior 
to  those  of  another  who  has  everything  in  the  way  of  selected 
brands,  grey  and  white,  to  mix  from.  White  iron,  hematite, 
and  cold-blast  need  not  be  considered  essential,  for  more  than 
good  metal  is  required  to  procure  good  castings.  All  men  are 
not  qualified  alike  for  tempering  a  steel  tool  in  the  smithy, 
and  so  in  like  manner,  at  least  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  it 
is  with  men  in  the  foundry  as  regards  results  in  tempering 
castings. 

Again,  chills  for  this  class  of  work  are  not  always  all  that 
could  be  desired,  as  cold-shut  veins  at  times  appear,  and  so 
disfigure  the  casting.  To  obviate  this  trouble  some  common 
rosin  may  be  ground  to  a  powder,  and  shaken  through  a  bag 
as  if  it  were  blacking.  A  small  amount  on  the  face  of  the 
chills  will  flux  and  render  fluid  the  metal  which  runs  over  the 


METAL  MIXING 


77 


FIG.  40. 


face  of  the  chills  at  the  time  of  pouring,  and  thus  improve 
the  face  and  finish  of  the  castings. 

Grey  Metal  and  Steel  Mixture  Castings. — Of  metals  suitable 
for  constructional  work,  cooking  ranges,  firebars,  and  such 
like,  not  much  information  of 
special  value  can  be  given.  Prac- 
tically everything  depends  on 
ordinary  grey  foundry  iron  judi- 
ciously mixed  with  scrap.  A  good 
scrap  iron  is  much  better  for 
firebars  than  an  expensive  gra- 
phitic iron,  whose  refractoriness 
is  considerably  less  on  account  of 
the  excess  of  fusible  elements  it 
carries.  It  is  worth  noting  that 
the  life  of  a  firebar  is  extended  by 
being  cast  in  "open  sand," 
although  firebars  made  in  that 
way  may  not  be  so  good-looking 
as  flasked  bar  castings. 

Figs.  40,  41,  42  and  43  are  in- 
tended to  show  the  difference 
in  fluidity  between  irons  of 
an  anti-frictional  and  frictional 
grade.  Fig.  40  represents  an 
anti  -  frictional  mixture  whose 
poverty  in  fusible  constituents 
makes  it  unsuitable  for  running 
moulds  of  this  section  in  the 
horizontal  position.  The  bulby 
formation  of  the  metal,  as  it 
rises  over  the  top  of  the  core 
into  the  space  shown  unfilled  with 
metal,  is  suggestive  of  cold- shut.  This  is  due  to  the  natural 
lack  of  fluidity  of  this  class  of  iron,  and  possibly  also  to  a 
decrease  in  the  original  fluidity  caused  by  surface  oxidation 
as  the  metal  fills  the  mould.  Defects  like  these  in  many 
cases,  or  indeed  with  cold-shut  generally,  never  appear  on 
the  surface,  and,  as  referred  to  elsewhere,  because  the  skin 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


FlG.  43. 


78  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

is  complete,  nothing  but  the  hydraulic  test  generally  can 
disclose  them. 

The  round  edges  of  Fig.  41  are  the  result  of  want  of  fluidity 
similar  to  that  represented  in  Fig.  40,  both  being  due  to 
poverty  of  what  some  are  pleased  to  call  impurities.  I  confess 
I  do  not  like  the  term,  as  these  elements  are  essential  in  giving 
fluidity,  and  the  absence  of  them  would  make  cast  iron  a 
product  almost,  if  not  altogether,  useless  in  the  art  of  founding 
in  general.  When,  however,  castings  are  subjected  to  excessive 
heat  or  to  the  action  of  acids,  brands  of  the  nature  described 
and  indicated  in  Figs.  40  and  41  will  give  satisfaction. 

In  Fig.  42  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  casting  has  a  perfectly 
level  surface  which  indicates  first-class  fluidity  without  the 
bulby  surfaces  shown  in  Fig.  40.  As  these  two  surfaces  meet 
at  the  top  (Fig.  42),  they  completely  fill  the  mould,  and  the 
meeting  of  such,  we  may  rest  assured,  will  result  in  a  sound 
and  homogeneous  casting,  such  as  would  be  impossible  with 
the  metal  used  in  the  other  case  (Fig.  40).  Fig.  43  illustrates 
what  in  plate  form  would  most  likely  be  obtained  from  the 
same  mixture,  i.e.,  sharp  top  edges.  Thus  the  metal 
that  suits  one  class  of  pattern  will  also  suit  the  other.  A 
mixture  for  Figs.  42  and  43,  or  all  such  sections  of  metal 
where  fluidity  is  of  first-rate  importance,  should  be  made 
from  grey  brands  judiciously  mixed  with  scrap  from  similar 
metal. 

One  of  the  best  anti-frictional  metals  in  iron  foundry 
practice  is  to  be  got  from  a  mixture  of  steel  or  malleable 
scrap  with  cast  iron,  the  latter  in  the  proportion  of  two  to 
one,  but  in  no  case  must  the  proportion  exceed  this.  Fifteen 
per  cent,  of  malleable  scrap  mixed  with  ordinary  cast  iron 
will  densify  many  poor  brands,  and  produce  for  certain  pur- 
poses a  metal  equal  to  some  of  the  best  brands  in  the  market. 

This  mixture  is  somewhat  of  a  "fake,"  and  has  long  been 
recognised  by  many  as  "  semi-steel,"  no  doubt  because  of  its 
superiority  to  ordinary  cast  iron.  It  is  capable  of  doing  good 
work,  wherever  used  for  gears  and  anti-frictional  castings, 
but,  being  dense,  is  very  liable  to  draw ;  therefore  the  gating 
must  be  about  twice  as  large  as  that  allowed  for  casting  or 
pouring  ordinary  iron. 


TEMPEEATUEE  79 

In  melting  this  mixture  prepare  the  bottom  of  the  cupola 
with  about  25  per  cent,  more  coke  than  is  used  for  common 
cast-iron  melting.  The  first  charge  on  the  top  of  this  should 
consist  of  scrap  and  pig-metal  from  brands  for  ordinary 
machinery  castings.  This  melting  first  dribbles  on  to  the 
hearth  of  the  cupola,  and  so  prepares  a  suitable  fluid  bath  to 
receive  the  malleable  iron  which  is  mixed  with  the  scrap  or 
pig  composing  the  succeeding  charge  or  charges  of  the  melt 
in  the  cupola. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  more  than  usual  care  is  required  for 
the  mixing  of  this  metal.  Therefore,  whatever  be  the  amount 
melted,  it  should  be  tapped  into  a  ladle  large  enough  to  hold 
all  the  metal  melted,  no  matter  whether  it  be  by  one  or  more 
taps,  and  thus  procure  the  best  mixing  possible.  Of  course 
the  best  results  obtainable  with  this  mixture  are  got  by  pre- 
paration and  casting  into  pigs,  as  was  recommended  in  the 
case  of  first-class  cylinder  metal. 


TEMPEEATUEE 

The  importance  of  this  question  not  only  to  the  founder  of 
high-class  castings,  but  to  those  whose  work  has  not  to  under- 
go the  same  close  scrutiny,  can  scarcely  be  over-estimated. 
Temperature  and  its  effect  on  the  coarser  grade  of  castings  is 
really  worthy  of  attention,  since  with  good  management  its 
control  involves  no  extra  cost  of  production. 

It  is  not  my  intention  to  deal  here  with  the  subject  of 
pyrometry,  or  the  measurement  of  high  temperatures  with  the 
aid  of  instruments  of  a  high  degree  of  sensitiveness,  but  to 
consider  only  the  control  of  temperature  by  the  observation  of 
the  trained  eye.  Colour  is  thus  used  as  the  indicator  of  tem- 
perature, and  it  is  only  necessary  to  dip  the  feeding  rod  or 
other  iron  rod  into  the  fluid  contents  of  the  ladle.  This 
method,  as  with  any  other  requiring  experience,  necessitates 
a  long  training  before  one  is  able  to  determine  temperatures, 
but  in  the  absence  of  a  simple  and  reliable  instrument  for 
foundry  purposes  an  iron  rod  is  a  good  substitute.  The 
simplicity  of  estimating  temperatures  by  merely  forcing  a  rod 
with  the  least  possible  disturbance  into  the  metal  in  either 


80  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL   FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

ladle  or  crucible  is  apparent,  and  the  author  has  used  this 
method  to  his  utmost  satisfaction  for  many  years. 

Many  have  but  one  idea  of  temperature,  and  that  is  to  cast 
moulds  with  metal  as  hot  as  it  is  possible  to  produce  it  from 
the  cupola.  This  is  unlikely  to  give  satisfaction  unless  with 
rainwater  goods  and  those  cast  from  metal  of  a  highly 
graphitic  or  phosphoric  character.  Although  these  brands  of 
iron  may  with  safety  be  cast  at  a  white  heat  (for  the  class  of 
castings  usually  poured  with  these  metals),  the  same  tempera- 
ture would  be  dangerous  with  hematite  or  cold-blast  irons. 
There  are  in  addition  many  other  conditions  which  determine 
the  correct  pouring  temperature,  such  as  the  character  of  the 
mould,  whether  chill,  dry  sand,  or  green  sand  ;  and  the  faculty 
of  being  able  to  judge  the  most  suitable  temperature  for  the 
pouring  of  a  mould  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in 
making  a  successful  founder. 

Having  thus  indicated  the  necessity  for  the  careful  control 
of  the  heat  of  the  metal  previous  to  pouring,  it  will  be  well  to 
consider  next  some  of  the  results  arising  from  the  lack  of  any 
such  control,  and  the  condition  of  the  mould  before  pouring  ; 
and  I  hope  to  show  that  it  is  best  to  cast  always  at  the  lowest 
temperature  compatible  with  general  conditions  of  safety. 

Then,  as  to  the  first  of  these  items,  it  is  known  to  experi- 
enced men  that  when  iron  of  the  most  metallic  brands  reaches 
the  milky-white  heat  it  is  in  a  boiling  and  disturbed  condition 
and  altogether  unsafe  for  general  casting,  and  more  especially 
is  this  the  case  wherever  the  gate  is  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  casting,  i.e.,  where  the  heat  is  not  reduced  by  travelling 
along  to  any  appreciable  extent  before  the  metal  enters  the 
mould.  Much  of  the  evil  done  by  using  metal  in  this  state 
never  comes  to  light,  unless  it  be  the  rougher  skin  produced 
by  casting  with  too  hot  metal,  and  because  of  the  fact  that 
much  of  it  is  cast  in  the  form  of  hollow  work  and  general 
architectural  castings,  etc.  But  when  we  leave  this  class  and 
come  to  machine-finished  and  polished  work  and  that  which 
has  to  be  hydraulically  tested,  the  regulation  of  temperature 
becomes  of  the  utmost  importance.  Many  are  the  instances 
which  might  be  given,  but  Figs.  44  and  45  should  suffice. 
Fig.  44,  which  shows  the  end  view  or  flange  of  a  barrel  with 


TEMPERATUKE 


si 


FIG.  44. 


Partin 


arrow  pointed  at  gate,  and  Fig.  45,  which  shows  the  part  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  gate,  may  serve  to  illustrate  what 
I  believe  to  be  the  effect  of  excessive  heat,  and  which  is  caused 
by  the  continual  action  of  the  metal  on  this  part  of  the  core 
at  the  time  of  pouring. 

Clearly,  if  this  be  so,  it  must  follow  that  the  greater  the 
heat  at  which  metal  is  used  in  casting  a  job  of  this  description, 
the  more  intensified 
will  the  defectiveness 
as  shown  at  Fig.  45, 
become.  What  this 
figure  demonstrates 
has,  in  my  experience, 
proved  a  source  of 
trouble  no  matter 
wheresoever  encoun- 
tered, and  as  often  as 
not  was  explained  by 
a  shake  of  the  head, 
or  some  such  utter- 
ance as  the  usual"' 'I 
do  not  understand." 
But  moulders  who  do 
understand,  even  if 
they  have  no  other 
position  of  casting  and 
gating,  will  be  able  to 
reduce  this  intermit- 
tent evil  to  a  very 
appreciable  extent  by 
a  little  stratagem  in 
the  formation  and  size  of  the  gate  in  question,  and  run  a  good 
chance  of  securing  a  faultless  bore  in  such  castings.  The 
defect  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  45  invariably  conceals  itself  until 
the  boring  bar,  with  its  cutters,  passes  over  this  part  at  the 
time  of  machining.  The  holes,  as  illustrated,  sometimes  con- 
fine themselves  to  less  space  than  shown  here,  and  in  other 
instances  occupy  more  space  than  a  man's  hand  could  cover. 
Their  depth  is  usually  about  J  in.  to  f  in.,  and  not  infrequently 

F.P  o 


FIG.  45. 


82  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

these  holes  contain  a  small  ball  or  pellet  clinging  as 
tenaciously  to  the  side  of  the  defect,  as  illustrated,  as  a  limpet 
does  to  a  rock. 

Doubtless  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
cause  of  this  nasty  effect  which  has  been  the  means  of  con- 
signing to  the  scrap-heap  many  an  otherwise  good  casting. 
But,  as  the  result  of  lengthy  experience  and  careful  observa- 
tion, I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  it  is  really  a  case  of 
" blowholes"  caused  by  the  continual  rush  of  metal  on  this 
particular  part  of  the  core,  which  is  practically  the  mouth  of 
the  gate  to  the  mould.  This  rush  of  metal  prevents  the  free 
escape  of  gases  evolved  from  this  part  of  the  core,  and  there  is 
a  tendency  for  some  of  the  gases  to  remain  entangled  in  the 
metal,  giving  rise  to  numerous  small  blowholes  in  this  part  of 
the  casting,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  45. 

Castings  run  as  indicated  should  at  all  times  have  their 
gates  distanced,  and  designed  whereby  the  least  possible 
"  boil  "  of  metal  will  take  place  in  the  mould,  and  if  cast  at  a 
temperature  judiciously  cool  will  give  the  best  results  possible. 

Mould  Conditions.  —  The  characters  and  conditions  of 
moulds  have  also  to  be  reckoned  with  in  fixing  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  any  mould  should  be  cast.  For  instance, 
there  is  variety  of  thickness,  which  is  always  a  source  of 
annoyance  because  of  the  variation  in  solidification  and  shrink- 
age. The  thinner  metal  certainly  requires  the  greater  heat, 
and  as  thickness  increases,  temperature,  generally  speaking, 
decreases.  Therefore,  where  variation  of  thickness  exists  a 
mean  temperature  ought  to  be  struck,  which  is  generally  fixed 
at  the  lowest  temperature  suitable  to  the  safe  running  of  the 
thinnest  parts  of  the  mould. 

In  deciding  the  temperature  for  dry-sand  work — and  what  is 
said  under  this  head  may  be  safely  applied  to  loam  also— the 
first  thing  to  reckon  with,  as  in  green-sand  work,  is  thickness; 
and  if  the  moulds  have  chaplets  interspersed  among  the  cores 
and  the  castings  are  to  be  tested  hydraulically,  the  higher  the 
temperature  at  which  such  moulds  are  cast  the  better  will  be 
the  results.  There  are,  however,  other  conditions  to  be  con- 
sidered, of  which  the  drying  of  the  moulds  is  perhaps  the 
most  important,  as  the  following  will  show. 


DEFECTS  IN  CAST-IEON  CASTINGS  83 

Fig.  46  is  an  illustration  of  what  in  the  foundry  is  known 
as  a  "  dumb  scab  "  due  to  defective  drying.  Wherever  this 
occurs  it  is  caused  by  the  action  of  steam  generated  by  the 
heat  of  the  metal.  This  steam  accumulates  in  the  face  of  the 
mould,  forces  its  way  through  the  surface  and  causes  the 
defect  shown  in  Fig.  46. 

It  will  be  observed  by  the  practical  man  that  some  little 
time  must  elapse,  in  most  cases,  after  pouring  before  steam 
can  develop  and  work  its  way  towards  the  surface  of  any 
mould.  This  admitted,  there  is  safety  in  working  for  rapid 
congelation,  i.e.,  other  things  being  equal,  for  by  doing  so  we 
reduce  the  time  the  metal  must  take  to  set,  and  may  thus 
secure  a  good  casting  even  from  imperfectly  dried  moulds, 
which  at  all  times  are  to  be  dreaded.  But  to  put  it  more 

#  Dumb   Scab   *> 

;j|- 

K$^E^^;»sMi*;£^  cSfeSiMH: 


FIG.  46. 

clearly,  and  by  way  of  example,  metal  at  a  comparatively 
milky- white  heat  used  in  the  pouring  of  moulds  should  take 
approximately  double  the  time  that  metal  at  a  pale  orange 
heat  would  take  to  solidify.  Therefore,  if  circumstances  per- 
mitted the  using  of  the  latter  condition  to  pour  at,  it  must  be 
manifestly  clear  that  with  the  shorter  time,  fluidity  is  likely 
to  be  past  and  solidification  completed  before  steam  could 
generate  and  reach  the  surface,  with  its  damaging  effect,  as 
shown  with  the  double  arrows  at  Fig.  46.  Hence,  moulds 
that  are  doubtfully  dried  should  only  be  cast  with  metal  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  it  is  possible  to  take  it,  and  with  due 
consideration  for  all  other  points  of  safety  in  securing  a  good, 
sound  and  solid  casting. 

DEFECTS  IN  CAST-IRON  CASTINGS 

The  causes  of   the  defects  so  frequently  found  below  the 
surface  when  finishing  iron   castings  have  been   made  the 

G  2 


84  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

subject  of  much  discussion  in  technical  literature,  and  many 
theories,  often  wide  of  the  mark,  have  been  advanced. 
Wherever  defectiveness  appears,  whether  a  spongy  surface 
or  irregular  holes,  the  popular  verdict  is  dirt,  and  caused 
by  dirty  metal.  Such  conclusions  are  usually  the  result 
of  inexperience,  and  in  the  writer's  opinion,  the  majority 
of  defects  below  the  surface  of  castings  are  due  to  bad 
design,  badly  adapted  metal,  or  neglect  in  the  matter  of 
feeding  and  position  of  casting.  Within  the  last  few  years 
a  very  rapid  advance  has  been  made  in  foundry  technics, 
especially  in  the  United  States,  and  it  would  seem  as  if  the 
future  would  see  a  chemist  in  most  of  the  better  conducted 
foundries  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  This  cannot  but 
be  an  advantage,  but  it  must  always  be  remembered  that 
chemistry  is  not  intended  to  replace  but  to  increase  the  value 
of  practical  experience  gained  in  the  foundry.  No  matter 
how  well  adapted  metal  may  be  for  any  given  jab  according 
to  chemical  analysis,  it  cannot  give  sound  and  solid  castings  if 
the  details  of  moulding  and  casting  and  the  after-treatment  as 
directed  by  the  foreman  be  not  all  that  is  necessary. 

Defects  in  cast-iron  castings  may  be  due  to  unsuitable  cast- 
ing position,  e.g.,  whether  vertical  or  otherwise.  Any  mechanic 
with  a  junior  understanding  knows  the  importance  of  casting 
"face  down."  In  the  author's  experience  of  casting  rams, 
which  is  considerable,  there  never  was  any  trouble  with  the 
bottom  end  being  defective,  and  the  same  is  true  of  all 
other  similar  castings  when  cast  in  a  vertical  position ; 
indeed,  any  practical  man  with  a  knowledge  of  castings, 
seeing  a  ram  for  the  first  time  as  it  came  polished  from 
the  turnery,  would  have  but  little  difficulty  in  determining 
which  was  the  lower  end  of  the  casting,  as  the  top  end 
invariably  shows  to  him  a  more  or  less  speckled  surface 
when  finished.  This  speckled  surface  is  caused  by  the 
impurities,  which  are  the  lighter  constituents  of  the  body  of 
the  metal,  rising  to  the  highest  part  at  the  time  of 
casting.  Defectiveness  would  be  more  pronounced  were  one 
foolishly  to  attempt  to  cast  a  ram  with  No.  1  grey  iron,  as 
there  would  be  such  an  accumulation  of  graphite  at  the 
top  end  as  to  make  the  metal  altogether  unsuited  for  the 


DEFECTS  IN  CAST-IRON  CASTINGS 


85 


purpose  intended,   and  this  would  be  more  so  if  the  metal 
happened  to  be  rather  dull  at  the  time  of  casting. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  Is  it  necessary  that  rams 
should  be  cast  in  the  vertical  position  ?  To  this  the  answer 
is  "  Absolutely  so,"  and  no  good  is  likely  to  come  from 
attempting  to  cast  in  any  other  position.  In  order  that  this 
may  be  more  easily  understood,  a  ram  as  it  should  be  cast  is 
shown  in  Fig.  47,  where  A  is  the  top  end  and  B  the  bottom. 
A  ram  cast  in  any  other  position  than  this  is  not  likely  to 
give  satisfaction.  The  author  has  known  of 
rams  giving  way  while  working  under  tensile 
stress  at  the  points  indicated  by  the  line  at  B 
(Fig.  47),  the  reason  being  that  this  part  was 
not  solid  on  account  of  being  the  top  end  at 
the  time  of  casting. 

It  is  common  to  apply  a  "  sinking-head  "  as 
a  cure  for  this  evil ;  but  unless  it  be  of  con- 
siderable depth,  it  is  reckoned  by  many  to  be 
of  little  account.  Some  authorities  proportion 
sinking-heads  at  1  in.  per  foot,  but  the  cost  of 
cutting  those  sinking-heads  off  is  considerable, 
and  has  its  proportional  outlay  in  the  foundry 
also.  Therefore,  by  stratagem  and  experience 
combined,  it  is  possible  to  have  no  less  satis- 
factory results,  if  not  better,  without  the  aid 
of  the  sinking-head,  as  mentioned,  and  this  has 
been  proved  to  the  author's  satisfaction  in 
practice.  All  considered,  the  foregoing  confirms  the 
advisability  of  casting  the  plug  end  A  up,  with  this 
type  of  ram,  (Fig.  47),  as  the  plug  end  has  but  little 
tensional  strain  while  working.  Therefore  the  greater 
proportion  of  graphite,  and  other  dirt  accumulated,  is  not 
of  a  serious  character,  while  pouring  at  this  end  is  not 
likely  to  give  any  troublesome  results  in  the  life  of  the 
casting.  Moulders,  as  a  rule,  prefer  the  cotter  end  B 
(Fig.  47),  to  be  the  top  end  while  casting,  as  they  have 
a  dread,  and  not  without  cause,  of  the  cotter  core  going 
to  pieces  on  account  of  the  long  drop  the  metal  has  to  the 
bottom  of  the  mould.  A  cotter  core  at  this  depth  is  almost 


FIG-  47. 


86  FACTS  ON  GENEKAL  FOUNDKY  PRACTICE 

an  impossibility  for  the  fettler  to  get  out  of  the  casting, 
because  of  it  being  metalised  by  such  extraordinary  heat  and 
compression  ;  therefore  the  better  way  is  to  cast  the  end  solid, 
and  bore  and  slot  the  cotter  hole,  which  gives  greater  satisfac- 
tion to  the  foundry,  and  proves  itself  a  better  job  for  machining, 
with  no  additional  cost  in  this  department. 

Fig.  48  shows  the  back  cover  of  a  cylinder  as  it  is  sometimes 
cast ;  such  a  casting  is  generally  defective  round  that  part  to 
which  the  arrow  points.  The  metal  as  seen  at  the  arrow,  being 
badly  arranged,  results  in  a  dirty-looking  casting,  the  turner 
being  unable  to  get  the  polish  on  it  desirable.  At  first  sight 
to  many  this  defective  surface  looks  to  be  dirty  metal,  it  being 
so  badly  speckled  on  the  surface  ;  but  a  closer  examination 
reveals  the  fact  that  it  is  porous  owing  to  badly  proportioned 
metal  in  this  particular  part  of  the  casting.  This  porousness 
is  quite  visible  all  round  in  the  region  of  the  arrow,  and 


FIG.  48.  FIG.  49. 

at  times  the  writer  has  seen  it  so  bad  as  to  condemn  the 
casting,  this  part  being  considered  insufficient  to  withstand 
the  cylinder's  working  pressure. 

Fig.  49  explains  how  to  obviate  this  evil.  In  this  figure  we 
have  a  well-proportioned  design,  and  it  requires  no  great 
practical  understanding  to  observe  that  immediately  on  casting 
such  a  mould,  the  process  of  solidification  begins  over  the 
whole  body  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  with  ordinary 
metal  suitable  for  machinery  castings,  and  cast  at  the  right 
temperature,  the  textural  homogeneity  of  this  casting  may 
with  perfect  safety  be  said  to  be  complete. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Fig.  48  represents  an  error  of  design. 
Many  other  instances  might  be  added  in  which  the  blame  is 
undeservedly  borne  by  the  foundry.  A  mastery  of  design, 
as  where  to  put  on  metal  and  where  to  take  it  off,  would  in 
many  of  the  best  established  engineering  concerns  save  much 
time  and  money. 


SPECIAL  PIPES-GEEEN-SAND   AND   DEY-SAND         87 

Figs.  48  and  49  are  used  to  illustrate  the  difference  between 
good  and  bad  design,  and  to  what  extent  density  is  affected 
thereby.  Moreover,  as  a  consequence,  the  casting  is  first 
condemned  for  sponginess  round  the  part  pointed  out  by 
the  arrow  (Fig.  48),  and  second,  because  of  its  non-dense 
and  dirty-looking  surface.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  it  is  not  the  outcome  of  dirty  metal  as  the  common 
verdict  would  make  it,  but  is  caused  by  an  error  of  design, 
and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  neither  iron  smelter  nor  founder 
have  anything  to  do  with  it,  although  the  latter,  as  usual, 
would  have  to  account  for  it.  This  defect  or  trouble,  shown 
at  Fig.  48,  is  just  another  form  of  shrinkage;  the  rest  of  the 
casting  has  set  previously  to  the  part  exposed  by  the  arrow,  as 
before  mentioned,  and  has  drawn  therefrom.  The  defective- 
ness  is  not  visible  to  the  casual  observer  before  polishing, 
and  but  for  the  skin  being  destroyed  in  the  process,  would 
undoubtedly  have  passed  muster  as  a  good  casting,  but  the 
scrutiny  of  polishing  condemned  it. 

The  lesson  here,  for  moulders  and  engineers  alike,  is  to 
seek  a  clear  understanding  of  the  habits  of  metal  in  all 
its  phases,  for  with  it  much  of  the  success  of  engineering  and 
mechanics  in  their  broadest  sense  depends.  Attention  to  this 
point  will  make  defective  and  bad  castings  a  diminishing 
quantity,  and  will  also  make  the  foundry  of  the  future  a  better 
and  more  profitable  place  for  all  concerned. 


SPECIAL    PIPES    (AND    PATTERNS)— GEEEN- SAND    AND 
DEY-SAND 

While  standard  straight  and  bend  pipes  have  long  been  made 
by  special  equipment  in  pipe  factories,  we  still  have  to  mould 
the  "  specials "  much  on  the  same  lines  of  practice  as  did 
others  fifty  years  ago.  Indeed,  it  has  yet  to  be  seen  whether 
our  methods  in  this  sort  of  work  can  be  improved  upon.  No 
doubt  means  to  an  end  with  "  special  pipe  moulding  "  vary, 
one  shop  vieing  with  another  as  to  which  is  best  and 
cheapest.  One  may  have  a  "  boss,"  another  a  skeleton 
pattern,  and  the  latter  being  capable  of  a  very  wide  interpre- 
tation means  anything  but  a  standard  pattern  in  wood. 


88  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

A  "  boss  "  is  usually  run  up  on  trestles  in  the  same  way  as 
a  common  loam  core ;  some  incline  to  finish  the  core,  with  the 
exception  of  blackwashing,  then  add  on  the  thickness  of 
metal  with  a  course  of  straw  rope  and  loam  which  is  usually 
sufficient  to  finish  the  boss ;  but  we  get  all  the  better  job  by 
leaving  space  to  finish  off  with  a  second  coat.  This,  when 
dried  and  painted  with  tar,  makes  a  very  superior  "  makeshift" 
pattern.  In  point  of  fact,  tarring  of  a  "  boss "  enables  it 
to  be  used  repeatedly,  if  need  be,  and  at  the  fourth  or  fifth 
time  should  leave  the  mould  more  intact  by  being  thus 
protected  than  is  usually  the  case  with  a  "boss"  used  for 
the  first  time  without  tarring.  Tarring  the  boss  should 
not  be  done  without  sufficient  heat  to  absorb  and  quickly 
dry  the  tar. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  where  two  bars  can  be  got  for  boss 
and  core  it  is  much  better  to  run  these  up  separately.  This 
method  entails  no  appreciable  extra  cost,  and  gives  a  guarantee 
for  a  safer  and  stronger  core.  In  the  first  process  of  "  core 
and  boss  "  combined,  it  will  be  seen  that  both  in  cooling  the 
boss  and  ramming  the  mould,  the  materials,  straw  rope  and 
loam,  are  put  to  too  severe  a  test  for  the  core  finished  previously 
to  be  handled  with  safety  at  the  time  of  casting.  The  foregoing 
method  of  using  substitutes  for  patterns  can  only  apply  to 
spherical  and  parallel  types  of  pipes  in  general. 

Special  bends,  U  and  S  pipes,  are  most  economically  pro- 
duced from  skeleton  patterns.  A  skeleton  pattern  is  usually 
made  from  a  flat  board  f  in.  or  1  in.  thick,  and  need  only  be 
dressed  in  the  pattern  shop  on  one  side  to  admit  of  easy  and 
clear  drawing  off  of  the  job.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  cut  and 
finished  to  the  outside  diameter,  and  should  have  5  ins.  or 
6  ins.  extra  plate  beyond  the  end  facings  of  the  casting,  in 
order  to  allow  sufficient  length  for  core,  and  core  bearing,  when 
moulding.  With  the  plate  pattern  in  this  condition  (Fig.  50), 
core  plates  and  core  irons  should  be  cast  before  any  more 
work  is  done  with  it  in  the  pattern  shop,  otherwise  it  may  be 
imperative  to  make  an  independent  plate  pattern,  for  casting 
plates  and  core  irons  of  the  work  in  question.  At  the  same 
time  while  the  above  applies  to  heavy  and  light  pipe  castings, 
we  need  not  hold  too  rigidly  to  cast-iron  plates  for  sweeping 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GEEEN-SAND  AND  DEY-SAND 


89 


up  the  cores,  as  the  following  experience  in  moulding  an  S 
pipe  will  show  :— 

Moulding  an  S  Pipe— The  five  figures  (Nos.  50,  51,  52,  53, 
and  54)  illustrating  the  moulding  of  this  pipe  represent  a  steam 
pipe  (for  a  "  breakdown  "  with  no  available  pattern  at  hand) 
4  ins.  diameter,  about  3  ft.  long,  and  shows  all  pattern  pieces 
necessary  for  the  moulding  of  the  job. 

The   first  notice  the  foundry  had  of  this  pipe  was  about 


FIG.  51. 


FIG.  52. 


9  a.m. ;  and  plates  having  to  be  cast  for  sweeping  up  the  core 
in  halves,  it  was  generally  admitted  that  the  pipe  in  question 
could  not  be  cast  that  night.  But  here  the  foundry  manager 
interposed  by  saying  that  if  they  departed  from  the  usual 
practice  of  making  cast-iron  core  plates,  and  substituted 
wooden  ones  for  a  time,  it  was  quite  possible  for  it  to  be  cast 
with  the  first  of  the  metal  that  afternoon,  which  was  about 
3  o'clock. 

This  was  agreed  to,  and  two  core  plates  as  shown  in  Fig.  50 
were  soon  produced.    These  were  cut  from  f  -in.  wood  by  the  aid 


90  PACTS  ON   GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

of  the  band  saw,  and  dressing  was  unnecessary.  The  core  maker 
having  secured  these  plates  in  wood,  along  with  the  sweep 
(Fig.  51),  a  piece  of  rod  iron  suitable  for  core  irons  was  soon 
obtained  and  set  to  the  centre,  as  shown  in  each  half  of  the  core 
at  Fig.  52,  so  that  in  about  an  hour's  time  these  half  cores  were 
swept,  placed  on  an  iron  plate  for  protection  while  drying,  and 
the  stove  being  in  prime  condition  to  receive  them,  they  were 
thus  dried  for  jointing  in  about  as  short  a  time  as  was  taken 
to  make  them..  The  jointing  being  completed,  the  core  was 
taken  back  to  the  stove,  and  thoroughly  dried,  then  carded 
and  calipered  to  size,  was  tried  in  the  mould  and  finished  by 
being  blackwashed,  which  necessitated  its  being  taken  back 
and  put  in  a  place  suitably  heated  in  order  to  drive  off  any 
water  absorbed  in  the  process  of  blackwashing. 

The  core  being  now  completed  and  ready  for  the  moulder's 
convenience,  the  goal  was  practically  reached  in  so  far  as  the 
surety  of  casting  a  pipe  of  this  description  in  the  least  possible 
time  was  concerned. 

Now,  there  beingnothing  extraordinary  about  the  moulding  of 
this  pipe,  further  than  that  which  is  common  to  all  "skeleton" 
pipe  work,  we  need  not  spend  time  as  to  details  thereof. 
Pattern  Fig.  53,  is  rammed,  parted  and  drawn,  and  it  is  then 
simply  a  case  of  scraping  out  to  gauge,  with  the  sweep  (Fig.  54), 
and  the  better  or  more  experienced  a  man  is  in  this  sort  of 
work,  of  course,  the  better  will  be  his  results.  It  is  the  fewest 
number  that  excel  here,  because,  unless  a  man  has  an  eye  for 
the  artistic  and  an  understanding  how  to  firm  and  form  a 
mould,  with  a  due  regard  to  "  ferro-static  "  pressure  at  the  time 
of  casting,  just  as  likely  as  not  we  get  a  casting  of  a  rough  and 
irregular  form  due  to  swells,  strains,  etc.  Suffice  it  to  say, 
this  pipe  was  cast  to  a  nearness  of  the  time  promised,  and  was 
in  due  time  lifted  and  fettled  in  a  dull  red  state,  and  passed 
into  the  machinist's  hands  for  facing  the  flanges  before 
6  o'clock  that  night,  the  pattern  pieces  being  delivered  to 
the  foundry  about  11  a.m.  We  thus  see  that  the  time  occupied 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  job  was  something  like 
seven  hours'  working  time,  clearly  saving  a  full  day's  time  by 
substituting  "  wooden  core  plates  "  for  iron,  and  with  no 
appreciable  increase  in  the  cost  of  production. 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GKEEN-SAND  AND  DEY-SAND         91 

While  we  admit  that  there  are  other  methods  and  "  fakes," 
in  moulding  a  pipe  in  a  hurry  where  no  pattern  for  the 
moment  is  obtainable,  still  there  is  nothing  I  know  of  that  can 
excel  for  speed  the  method  just  described. 

The  practice  of  sweeping  up  a  core  and  drying  it,  then 
sweeping  on  it  the  thickness  of  metal,  as  is  sometimes  done,  is, 
in  the  author's  opinion,  not  good  practice.  For  whether  it  be 
by  sweeping  in  halves  and  jointing  after  the  fashion  of  Fig.  52, 
or  should  it  be  a  boss  run  up  in  the  usual  way  of  core  making 
as  previously  referred  to,  in  neither  of  these  ways  have  we  a 
substitute  for  a  pattern  capable  of  withstanding  the  force  of 
ramming  that  is  necessary  to  procure  a  good  casting.  Because, 
no  matter  how  careful  one  may  be,  the  core  first  formed  must 
become  deteriorated  by  the  force  of  ramming,  and  the 
frequency  of  expansion  and  contraction  caused  by  using  it  first 
as  a  boss  to  mould  from,  and  second  as  a  core  in  producing 
the  casting.  Then  as  to  time  there  can  be  no  comparison, 
because,  with  the  former  method,  as  illustrated  by  the  five 
figures  (Nos.  50,  51,  52,  53,  and  54),  which  admits  of  the 
moulder  and  core  maker  moving  together,  no  overlapping  of 
the  one  with  the  other  can  possibly  take  place ;  consequently 
the  job  proceeds  without  a  hitch  or  stop  of  any  kind  from 
start  to  finish. 

Briefly  put,  the  second  method  means  that  the  core,  after 
being  swept,  run  up,  or  completed,  has  to  enter  the  stove  for 
drying,  and  when  taken  therefrom  the  thickness  of  the  metal 
allowed  for  the  pipe  casting  is  swept  or  coated  with  loam  on 
the  core.  It  is  then  put  back  in  the  stove  for  drying,  and 
when  dried  with  this  thickness  added  it  will  be  obvious  that 
some  time  must  elapse  before  it  can  be  sufficiently  cooled,  etc., 
and  the  moulder  can  with  safety  use  it  as  a  pattern.  Again,  after 
it  has  been  so  handled  and  taken  from  the  sand,  it  has  to  be 
stripped  of  its  thickness  of  metal  before  the  core  can  be  restored 
to  its  original  condition,  thus  causing  an  amount  of  expense 
and  trouble  which  seems  too  apparent  for  further  comment. 
Thus  we  have  tried  to  show  two  methods  of  making  the 
same  pipe,  first  by  skeleton  pattern,  second  by  the  boss 
method;  and  by  adopting  the  former  for  pipes  similar 
to  those  dealt  with  here,  the  mould  should  be 


92  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

completed  and  ready  for  casting  in  less  time  than  is  required 
to  prepare  a  boss  for  the  initial  stage  of  ramming  a  special 
pipe  on  the  lines  laid  down.  And  although  this  is  but  a  small 
job  in  special  pipe  moulding  from  a  skeleton  pattern,  the 
principle  is  the  same  throughout  (with  the  exception  of  the 
wooden  core  plates)  with  all  pipes,  large  or  small,  that  are 
thus  moulded. 

Moulding  an  Air  Vessel  ivith  Boss  Pattern. — In  Fig.  55 
we  show  a  ."  boss  "  for  moulding  an  air  vessel,  say, 
from  6  ft.  to  12  ft.  long,  which,  as  has  already  been 
stated,  consists  of  straw  ropes  and  loam  run  and  rubbed 
on  a  core  bar,  as  seen  in  longitudinal  section.  It  will 


FIG.  55. 

at  once  be  seen  that  a  wooden  pattern  for  such  a  job 
as  this  means  in  money  three  or  four  times  what  should 
be  the  cost  of  the  casting  from  the  foundry.  But  with  the 
use  of  a  boss,  tarred  as  previously  stated,  the  saving  all 
over  is  very  considerable  indeed  where  only  one  or  two  are 
wanted. 

At  one  time  it  was  common  for  such  a  job  as  this  to  get  a 
pipe  pattern  as  near  the  diameter  at  one  or  both  ends  as 
possible,  and  make  what  was  called  a  "  skeleton  saddle  "  to  fit 
over  the  body  of  the  pattern,  thus  forming  the  bulge  or  body 
(not  illustrated).  This  method  gives  a  good  deal  of  trouble  in 
the  foundry,  and  means  considerable  cost  in  the  pattern  shop 
also.  With  regard  to  the  work  entailed  in  the  pattern  shop, 
the  least  that  probably  would  be  done  to  make  the  saddle 
suggested  would  consist  of  a  few  circular  pieces  to  indicate 
the  outside  diameter.  These  attached  to  three  horizontal  bars 
made  from  full  drawing  given,  and  of  the  requisite  breadth 
for  "  faking  "  of  the  pattern,  with  a  due  regard  for  correct 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GREEN-SAND  AND  DEY-SAND         9'3 

diameter,  constitute  the  outline  here  given  of  a  "  saddle  fake  " 
to  a  suitable  pipe  pattern  for  a  "  makeshift "  pattern  for  an 
air  vessel.  Circle  parts  may  vary  from  6  ins.  to  12  ins. 
apart.  These  two  half  saddles  for  the  respective  halves 
of  the  pipe  pattern  selected,  and  for  obvious  reasons  not  illus- 
trated, should  give  a  fair  idea  of  what  is  wanted,  and  at 
the  same  time  show  the  work  of  moulding  from  such  to  be 
considerable  in  the  foundry,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following. 

First  of  all,  when  the  moulder  gets  to  work  (i.e.,  in  the 
method  of  turnover  boxes)  with  such  a  pattern  as  this,  he 
has  to  fill  with  sand  all  spaces  on  the  saddle,  and  ram,  form 
and  finish  the  outside  diameter,  the  saddle  being  his  guide  in 
this  operation.  After  being  formed,  the  whole  body  must  be 
lightly  coated  with  wet  parting  sand,  and  sleeked,  thus 
enabling  the  mould  to  part  from  its  sand  boss,  which  is  a 
part  of  all  skeleton  pattern  making. 

In  finishing  moulds  such  as  this  we  must  also  have  sweeps 
supplied  for  all  the  different  diameters  to  prove  thoroughly 
what  is  necessary  before  the  final  finish,  and  so  secure  the 
true  dimensions  wanted.  In  summarising  this  method  of 
moulding  an  air  vessel,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  55,  the  work  of 
the  pattern  shop  consists  of  making  the  saddles  for  both 
halves  of  the  pattern  selected.  These,  with  the  loam 
board  for  the  core  and  sweeps  to  prove  the  body,  all 
combine  to  form  a  considerable  sum  in  the  cost  of  producing 
this  casting. 

Compared  with  the  above  the  cost  of  the  "  boss  method  "  of 
moulding  is  very  trifling  in  the  pattern  shop,  as  a  core  board 
for  the  boss  and  a  loam  board  for  the  core  are  all  that  are 
required  in  connection  with  the  body  of  the  casting.  And 
the  flanges  and  core  board  being  the  same  in  both  methods, 
we  are  left  to  put  the  cost  of  the  core  and  loam  boards  against 
the  cost  of  the  two  half  saddles  and  sweeps  for  the  pipe-faked 
pattern.  So  that  for  every  shilling  spent  with  a  boss  in  jobs 
of  this  description  we  may  spend  as  many  sovereigns  in 
faking  a  skeleton  pattern  of  any  kind. 

Hence  it  is  that  wherever  time  can  be  allowed  for  the  making 
of  it,  a  boss  as  a  substitute  for  a  pattern  will,  wherever 


94 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


practicable,  give  most  satisfaction.  We  have  used  this  in 
casting  columns  where  only  half-a-dozen  were  wanted  and 
with  every  satisfaction.  When  painting  or  tarring  the  boss, 
the  latter  being  preferable,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  tar 
and  creosote  will  penetrate  considerably  further  than 
tar  by  itself,  and  the  boss  becomes  much  harder  thereby. 
This  and  the  anti-clogging  nature  imparted  by  painting  with 
the  mixture  mentioned  make  it  a  comparatively  good  pattern 
for  leaving  the  sand  when  drawing  it  previously  to  finishing 
the  mould.  No  scraping  or  faking,  such  as  belongs  to  the 
skeleton  pattern  method  of  moulding  (an  item  of  considerable 
cost),  attends  the  method  of  moulding  by  a  boss. 

Making  an  Air  Vessel  Core. — A  glance  at  Fig.  56  will  show 
that  much  more  care  and  ability  than  is  commonly  needed 

in  making  straight  pipes  is 
required  to  make  an  air 
vessel  core  of  the  dimen- 
sions given  here.  A  special 
core  bar  to  some  may 
seem  imperative,  but  this 
is  not  necessary.  Any 
ordinary  parallel  bar  of 
suitable  diameter  for  either 
or  both  ends  (allowing  from 
1J  ins.  to  2J  ins.  a  side  for 

"  coating  " — the  former  preferred)  will  do.  It  may  be  said  that 
there  is  no  great  or  unusual  danger  with  these  cores,  even 
when  the  bulge  or  body  part  is  9  ins.  a  side  larger  in 
diameter  than  any  of  the  end  sizes  of  this  core.  But  in 
order  to  make  it  strong  enough  rings  are  cast  suitable  for 
wedging  or  keying  on  the  bar. 

By  reference  to  Fig.  56,  which  is  a  section  of  the  body 
of  this  air  vessel  core,  we  see  at  once  the  idea  of  fixing  these 
rings,  shown  in  section,  to  the  bar,  and  without  them  this  core 
would  be  very  unsafe  if  not  altogether  useless  for  casting  this 
job  horizontally.  Such  an  amount  of  ropes  and  loam  as  is 
shown  in  section  (Fig.  56)  require  to  be  interspersed  with 
rings  thus  shown,  say,  from  15  ins.  to  18  ins.  apart,  of  course 
beginning  from  one  end  and  finishing  at  the  opposite  end. 


Fm.  56. 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GREENLAND  AND  DEY-SAND         95 

The  rings  of  design  shown  at  Fig.  56  have  four  slits  (^4)  so 
as  to  admit  of  the  core  maker  getting  his  ropes  on  uninter- 
rupted from  end  to  end  for  at  least  the  last  three  or  four 
courses.  This  is  important ;  and  if  he  also  works  his  ropes 
alternately  from  the  opposite  ends  he  will  add  materially  to 
the  efficiency  of  such  a  core  as  Fig.  56  represents. 

Drying  the  Core. — Much  care  must  be  exercised  in  firing 
this  core.  "  Slow  but  sure  "  must  be  the  motto,  so  that  all  may 
be  dried  to  the  point  desired  without  burning  or  "  tingeing  " 
the  ropes  in  any  way.  Nevertheless,  it  must  contain  that 
amount  of  moisture  necessary  to  maintain  the  strength  of  the 
core  and  its  resistance  to  pressure,  and  at  the  same  time  be 
sufficiently  dry  to  keep  it  from  blowing  at  the  time  of  casting. 
These  are  factors  of  vital  consequence  which  nothing  but 
experience  can  direct  or  command. 

It  is  not  at  all  times  the  safest  way  of  judging  a  core  as  to 
whether  it  is  dry  or  not  by  the  amount  of  steam  it  gives  out 
from  the  ends  of  its  bar  while  drying.  The  better  way  of 
educating  oneself  in  this  department  of  core  making  is  to 
drive  a  f -in.  spike  right  down  through  the  core  to  the  extent 
of  touching  the  core  bar.  This  done,  allow  it  to  remain  a  few 
seconds,  and  when  drawn  the  amount  of  dampness  shown  on 
the  spike  represents  the  condition  of  the  core  internally.  This 
and  sound,  by  rapping  the  core  all  over,  should  be  regarded 
as  the  main  principles  of  determining  as  to  whether  a  core, 
and  especially  of  this  class,  be  dry  or  not. 

Bottle-Necked,  Bell-Mouthed,  Tapers,  Branch  Pipes  and 
Bends. — The  above  are  but  a  few  of  the  pipes  in  general 
use  and  must  all  be  regarded  from  a  jobbing  point 
of  view.  In  designing  these  pipes  the  first  concern  of  the 
draughtsman  should  be  economy  in  pattern  making  and 
moulding ;  and  if  these  two  departments  be  considered 
in  this  matter,  machining  and  fitting,  we  may  take  for 
granted,  will  work  out  in  the  cost  of  production  much 
the  same,  irrespective  of  methods  adopted  in  pattern  shop 
or  foundry. 

Fig.  57  shows  a  bottle-necked  pipe  whose  diameters  varies 
from  20  ins.  to  16  ins.  respectively.  With  this  pipe  we  can  get 
many  sections  with  results  practically  the  same  in  so  far  as 


96  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

efficiency  or  capacity  for  work  is  concerned,  as  we  shall  show. 
First,  then,  we  have  it  as  shown  in  the  figure  mentioned ; 
second,  the  same  capacity  of  supply  is  produced  in  Fig.  58, 
and  again  we  can  have  the  same  in  effect  from  a  common 
tapered  pipe  not  illustrated. 

Tapers. — Now,  of  the  types  mentioned  it  will  be  gene- 
rally admitted  that  the  tapered  pipe  must  have  a  preference, 
because  of  the  uninterrupted  gradation  that  admits  of 
the  easiest  flow  of  liquid  or  vapour  of  any  kind  through 
it.  But  while  the  core  of  this  pipe  can  be  quite  economic- 
ally produced  the  same  does  not  apply  to  the  mould,  and  the 
absence  of  taper  pipes  in  the  foundry  goes  somewhat  to  prove 
this  contention.  Nothing  is  more  troublesome  to  "  scrape," 

cut  and  finish  to 
size  than  a  sand 
mould  for  a  tapered 
surface  or  section, 
which  no  doubt 
accounts  for  the 
absence  of  this 

FIG.  57.  design  in  diminish- 

ing pipes.  Conse- 
quently, where  a  taper  pipe  is  imperative  and  no  pattern 
be  available,  by  all  means  make  this  pipe  with  a  boss,  or 
sweep  it  according  to  " special"  pipe  foundry  practice; 
other  things  being  equal,  it  will  be  cheapest  and  best  in 
the  end,  when  only  one  or  two  are  wanted. 

Bottle-Neck  Pipes. — But  to  return  to  Fig  57,  which  shows 
a  "  bottle-neck,"  the  different  diameters  being  previously 
given.  With  this  pipe  it  will  be  seen  that  the  amount 
of  work  in  the  pattern  shop  is  considerable,  and  this  is 
intensified  when  passing  through  the  foundry  in  the  process 
of  moulding. 

At  this  point  it  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  all  these  pipes 
are  to  be  taken  as  9-ft.  lengths,  and  it  should  also  be  remem- 
bered that  moulding  boxes  made  for  pipes  do  not  usually  give 
more  than  3  ins.  a  side  for  sand,  but  sometimes  less.  So  for 
every  inch  added  to  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  we  require  a 
correspondingly  broader  moulding  box  to  mould  it  in,  thus 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GREEN-SAND  AND  DRY-SAND         97 

increasing  the  time  to  be  taken  for  moulding  and  drying  the 
job.  Those  two  items  of  cost  are  worthy  of  serious  considera- 
tion, and  militate  against  the  adoption  of  "  bottle-necked  " 
design  where  diminishing  pipes  are  wanted. 

Bell-mouthed  Pipes. — In  Fig.  58  is  shown  a  "bell-mouth" 
straight  pipe,  20  ins.  by  16  ins.  diameter.  This  pipe  can  with 
perfect  safety  be  substituted  (especially  for  water  arid  steam) 
for  a  "  bottle-necked "  pipe,  and  in  choosing  this  way  of 
making  a  diminishing  pipe  we  see  at  once  its  simplicity,  as 
also  its  economy. 

Now,  assuming  we  get  a  pipe  pattern  the  diameter  of  the 
small  end,  namely  16  ins.,  the  fixing  of  the  largest  flange  on 
the  "  bell-mouth  "  end  need  not  count  for  much.     And,  as  a 
matter    of     fact,    the 
" bell-mouth"  can  be 
formed  in  the  foundry 
by  the  aid  of  two  joint 
bracket-like  pieces 
Sins. thick.  These, and 
one  similar,   top  and 
bottom,  fixed  against  FIG.  58. 

the  flange  and  resting 

on  the  body  of  both  halves  of  the  pattern,  include  all  the 
pattern  making  required  for  moulding  this  or  similar 
"  bell-mouth  "  pipes.  The  amount  of  "  bell-mouth  "  as  illus- 
trated at  Fig.  58  should  suffice  for  bolt  holes  and  brackets  on 
the  flange,  if  the  latter  be  desired. 

One  of  the  principal  factors  in  economy  in  moulding  this 
pipe  is  to  see  that  the  ordinary  moulding  boxes  for  16-in.  pipes 
will  admit  of  the  flange  and  "  bell-mouthed  "  end  getting  into  the 
head  of  the  moulding  boxes  in  question.  If  this  be  not  obtain- 
able, the  result  will  not  be  quite  so  satisfactory.  Nevertheless, 
the  economy  of  moulding  a  diminishing  pipe  on  the. lines 
suggested  should  commend  itself  throughout  all  departments 
interested.  Of  course,  a  special  core  board  to  suit  the  bell- 
mouth  in  this  job,  as  with  the  other  types  referred  to,  must 
be  made.  The  saving  of  time  and  material  from  ever}7  point 
of  view  and  an  equal  capacity  for  work  and  efficiency  make 
this  at  all  times  an  ideal  diminishing  pipe. 

F.P.  H 


98  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

Branch  Pipes. — The  placing  of  a  branch  on  the  side  of  a 
pipe  may  seem  a  very  trifling  affair  to  many  outside  the  arena 
of  practical  moulding,  nevertheless  its  bearing  on  the  cost  of 
production  is  no  small  matter  indeed.  In  its  best  form  it 
means  not  less  than  double  the  cost  of  a  straight  pipe,  and  at 
times  it  may  even  treble  this,  and  may  not  figure  two  dozen 
pounds  more  in  weight.  It  frequently  happens  that  in  this  class 
of  work,  and  especially  when  dealing  with  small  diameters, 
the  costliest  castings  passing  through  a  jobbing  foundry  are 
within  the  limits  of  cost  for  small  branch  pipe  castings.  This 
is  even  the  case  where  the  condition  of  patterns  is  most  favour- 
able, i.e.,  being  in  store,  together  with  all  appurtenances,  such 
as  flanges,  branches,  bearings,  and  templates — things  common 
to  jobbing  pipe  foundry  practice. 

In  arranging  branch  piping,  the  one  important  point  for 
the  foundry  is  to  make  all  branches  from  the  side  of  the 
pattern  as  short  as  possible,  and  more  particularly  if  the  pipes 
be  of  large  diameters  and  lengthy.  Due  attention  to  what  is 
here  suggested  means  money  in  the  foundry ;  and  if  dry-sand 
be  the  order  for  casting,  the  importance  of  keeping  branches 
at  a  minimum  of  distance  from  the  body  of  a  pipe  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  While  this  is  so,  it  has  to  be  admitted  that 
circumstances  arise  which  give  the  draughtsman  but  little,  if 
any,  choice  in  these  matters.  Still  it  often  happens  to  be  the 
other  way  about,  and  until  there  be  more  give  and  take  between 
drawing  office,  pattern  shop,  and  foundry,  much  useless  waste 
in  the  production  of  castings,  as  hitherto,  will  continue  to 
go  on. 

The  pattern  shop  generally  comes  in  for  a  fair  share  of  the 
wages  spent  in  "  branch  pipe  moulding "  (pipe  factories 
excepted),  even  with  shops  that  have  standard  length  and 
short  pipe  patterns  favourable  to  the  casting  of  branch 
pipe  work.  But  with  branch  pipe  moulding,  as  with  other 
kinds  of  work,  there  are  more  ways  than  one  of  doing  it. 
Some  fix  everything  on  the  pattern  that  goes  to  make  the 
casting ;  others  do  this  but  partially,  and  leave  the  moulder 
to  bed  in  all  branches  to  sketch ;  while  on  the  other  hand 
some  foundries  are  only  supplied  with  sketches,  the  pattern 
shop  supplying  all  adjuncts  which  go  to  make  the  casting 


SPECIAL  PIPES— GKEEN-SAKD  AND  DEY-SAND         99 

to  sketches,  thus  leaving  the  responsibility  with  the  foundry 
in  producing  "  branch,"  "  short  lengths,"  and  variable  lengths 
of  bend  pipe  castings.  The  last  method  is  as  free  from  liability 
of  mistakes  as  the  system  of  fixing  on  everything  to  sketch  in 
the  pattern  shop.  Of  course  the  foundry  cost  is  a  trifle  increased, 
but  this  method,  and  the  saving  it  effects  in  the  pattern  shop, 
may  give  a  good  profit  on  a  job,  which  otherwise  might  mean 
considerable  loss. 

In  moulding  branch  pipes  by  this  method,  the  moulder 
should  "  bed  in  "  the  neck  flange,  which  is  usually  a  tight  fit 
with  the  pipe  pattern.  These  rammed  and  cleared  off  give  a 
grand  base  and  make  things  quite  clear  for  measuring,  and 
bedding  all  other  parts  that  may  be  shown  on  the  sketch  that 
he  is  working  from.  The  body  flanges  for  jobbing  pipe  found- 
ing are  best  when  fixed  on  a  3-in.  or  4-in.  circle  belt  of  flat  iron 
about  T3g  in.  thick.  This  flange  makes  easy  and  safe  working, 
and  if  once  placed  and  well  rammed,  with  the  body  of  the  pipe 
rammed  previously,  no  fear  of  shifting  need  be  apprehended. 
The  pins  fitted  with  these  flanges  make  it  perfectly  safe  to 
hold  the  top  half  in  its  position  also,  assuming  the  flanges  to 
be  in  good  working  condition. 

Bend  Pipes. — In  this  section  of  the  pipe  trade  it  may  be  quite 
safe  to  say  that  more  ideas  in  practice  have  here  been  demon- 
strated than  with  any  other  casting  we  can  think  of.  From 
the  solid  pattern,  skeleton  and  boss,  to  the  machine  method 
of  moulding  and  casting  bend  pipes,  there  is  a  truly  wonderful 
amount  of  th ought  and  genius  involved  in  this  branch  of  founding, 
every  detail  of  which  has  an  importance  of  its  own.  And  to 
go  to  extremes  we  can  at  once  say  with  safety  that  a  machine- 
made  bend  pipe,  in  so  far  as  moulding  is  concerned,  has  nothing 
whatever  in  common  with  a  hand-moulded  bend  casting.  But 
this  aside,  the  various  methods  of  hand  moulding  give  a  range 
greater  than  is  necessary  for  our  purpose,  at  present,  of  casting 
bend  pipes  on  the  lines  of  a  jobbing  foundry,  to  which  these 
notes  on  special  pipes  (although  limited)  are  directed.  There- 
fore, whatever  excellent  methods  are  adopted  in  pipe  factories 
for  turning  out  these  castings  expeditiously,  and  on  the  basis 
of  standard  or  repeat  moulding,  the  question  of  how  to  make  a 
bend  of  ordinary  dimensions,  when  only  one  or  two  are  wanted, 

H2 


100 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


FIG.  59. 


is  what  these  short  articles  are  primarily  intended  to  deal  with. 
And  while  admitting  the  principles  of  skeleton  pipe  moulding, 
large  or  small,  to  be  very  much  the  same,  it  goes  without  saying, 
that  the  details  must  differ-according  to  circumstances.  Fig.  59 
is  a  stool  bend,  and  gives  us  an  example  in  this  respect,  and  the 
details  given  are  applicable  to  bends  from,  say,  18  ins.  to  30  ins. 

diameter.    With  this  class 
I  of    castings,    and    where 

plant  and  other  conveni- 
ences are  commendable 
for  dry-sand  and  loam 
moulding,  these  will  be 
cheapest  and  best  when 
moulded  in  either.  So 
much  for  this  detail  in 
"  heavy  bend  moulding 
and  casting." 

In  proceeding  with  the 
stool  bend  (Figs.  59  and 
60),  suffice  it  to  say  that 
the  principles  of  drawing 
and  making  the  skeleton 
pattern  are  all  to  be  found 
in  the  making  of  an  S  pipe 
(Figs.  50,  51,  52,  53,  and 
54). 

Core  Irons  and  Cores. — 
Having  thus  assumed  the 
principles  of  moulding  to  be  matter-of-fact,  we  now  touch  upon 
some  of  the  essentials  in  making  the  core  irons  and  cores  of 
the  stool  bend  under  consideration.  In  the  first  place,  we  call 
attention  to  Fig.  61,  which  shows  a  plan  of  the  core  iron,  and 
bottom  half  of  the  core,  as  seen  in  complete  section  at  Fig.  62. 
In  this  figure  special  note  should  be  taken  to  observe  that  the 
eye  thus,  f|,  in  the  top  half  of  section  B  (Fig.  62),  is  cast  into  the 
core  iron,  also  shown.  This  eye,  or  "lifter,"  in  the  plan 
(Fig.  61,  A),  is  represented  by  dotted  lines,  showing  where  to 
place  it  for  convenience  of  slinging  the  core  when  handling  it 
during  the  process  of  making  it  and  coring  the  job.  This 


(Gates-) 

JjLfi 

.    ;  /  -  _   ^.l            •; 

i,  •''•'/'    i    '~y 

i\V      ^' 

FIG.  60. 


SPECIAL  PIPES-GREEN-SAND  AND  DRY-SAND        101 


FIG.  61. 


eye,  and  the  projections  at  both  ends  of  core  iron  C  (Fig.  61), 
make  good  slinging  provision  for  cores  of  this  type.  Con- 
sequently the  eyes,  as  shown  in  Figs.  62  and  63,  are  of  vital 
importance  to  the  slinging  of  this  and  similar  large  bends  and 
loam  cores.  This  kind  of  core  iron  is  superior  to  anything  we 
know  of  for  this  class  of  work,  and  with  the  strong  sectional 
bar,  or  "  backbone,"  running  through  the  centre  and  the  ribs 
projecting  therefrom,  the 
core-iron  should  be  com- 
paratively light,  and  thus 
facilitate  and  make  fettling 
an  easy  job  for  the  dressers. 
The  dotted  lines  (Fig.  61^) 
show  the  formation  that 
the  top  core-iron  must 
have  to  admit  of  the  "eye" 
getting  up  through  from 
the  bottom  half  of  the 
core.  If  this  be  not 
attended  to  the  arrange- 
ment as  shown  here  will 
be  a  failure.  One  "  eye  " 
(not  shown)  should  also 
be  cast  on  a  suitable  part 
of  the  top  half  of  the 
core,  and  on  the  curve  of 
same,  for  slinging  this  half  of  the  core  preparatory  to 
jointing  it. 

Fig.  63  illustrates  in  section  the  bottom  half  of  the  core,  as  it 
lies  swept  on  its  plate  A,  and  is  intended  to  show  conclusively 
this  important  point  to  greater  advantage. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  mention  here  other  kinds  of  core 
irons,  except  to  say  that  these  are  all  stamped  and  moulded 
with  a  shovelhead ;  or  if  a  thicker  section  be  advisable, 
a  sledge  hammer  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  and  when 
stamped  they  are  then  faked  up  or  finished  with  a  flat  stick  or 
trowel,  according  to  foundry  usage  in  this  class  of  work.  The 
prods,  or  daubers,  as  seen  in  both  sections  of  Figs.  62  and  63, 
are  formed  by  curving  a  spike  of  malleable  iron  for  this  purpose, 


FIG.  62. 


FIG.  63. 


102  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

and  a  little  care  in  daubing  these  irons  with  the  curved 
spike  in  question,  for  more  reasons  than  one,  will  serve 
a  good  purpose.  Further,  standard  bend  core  irons, 
wherever  it  may  be  possible  to  fettle  without  breaking,  can 
be  made  with  "  wings "  instead  of  prods  as  illustrated 
(Fig.  62).  If  "winged"  core-irons  be  preferable,  then  a 
pattern  of  some  sort  should  be  made. 

Gating  the  Mould. — It  is  always  matter  for  concern  to  know 
the  best  place  to  run,  or  gate,  a  mould,  and  frequently  is  this 
the  case  with  jobbing  pipe  moulding.  However,  in  Figs.  59 
and  60  the  stool  of  this  bend  is  so  well  situated  that  nothing 
could  beat  it  for  this  purpose,  and  "  dropping  "  anywhere  from 
the  stool  should  do.  By  this  way  of  gating  we  get  the  hottest 
metal  passing  over  the  top  side  of  the  core  when  it  rises  to  this 
level  at  the  time  of  pouring,  and  at  the  same  time  it  will  clean  the 
top  side  of  the  casting  considerably,  which  will  go  a  great  way  to 
obviate  blistering  as  well.  Moreover,  when  casting  or  pouring 
pipes  in  the  horizontal  position,  if  provision  can  be  made  for 
a  hot  ladle  of  metal  getting  in  by  a  flower  or  riser  gate  to 
wash  the  back  of  the  pipe  mould,  so  to  speak,  the  greatest 
good  possible  will  result  in  securing  a  sound  casting.  Top 
sides,  wherever  practicable,  should  be  exposed  for  examina- 
tion in  a  comparatively  red  condition,  for  improving,  if  that 
be  necessary,  what  is  cast.  The  least  possible  time  spent  on 
this  operation,  and  again  covering  up  as  quickly  as  possible,  is 
very  desirable. 

Again,  the  importance  of  standard  lengths  of  bends  asserts 
itself  here,  and  were  this  recognised  things  would  be  better 
for  all  concerned  in  this  class  of  jobbing  founding.  Just  one 
case  in  point.  A  large  bend,  say,  24  ins.  diameter  by  7  ft.  6  ins. 
by  2  ft.,  according  to  sketch,  whose  extreme  measurements 
would  approximate  9  ft.  by  3  ft.  6  ins.,  with  an  additional 
6  ins.  lengthways,  and  a  little  more  than  this  sideways  for 
core  bearings,  and  with  also  the  usual  average  for  depth  of 
flange,  would,  therefore,  involve  the  use  of  a  monstrous 
box  in  which  to  mould  such  a  pipe.. 

Now,  with  a  "knee,"  or  quarter-bend,  such  a  pipe  as 
above  referred  to  would  never  be  sketched,  as  the  same 
could  be  got  from  a  knee  bend  of  2  ft.  by  2  ft.  and  a  straight- 


SPECIAL   PIPES— GREEN-SAND  AND   DEY-SAND        103 

length  pipe  of  5  ft.  6  ins.  long.  This  arrangement  for  pattern 
making,  founding,  etc.,  and  the  phenomenal  reduction  oj 
moulding,  make  it  the  workshop  practice  of  experience 
as  it  should  be,  and  avoids  the  loss  which  inevitably 
follows  inexperience  in  every  phase  or  form  of  workshop 
practice. 

Pump  Pipes. — In  concluding  this  short  section  on  jobbing 
pipe  founding,  our  purpose  has  been  to  a  considerable  extent 
to  bring  the  drawing  office,  pattern  shop,  and  foundry 
together ;  and  in  order  to  emphasise  this  and  the  difficulties 
common  to  many  young  draughtsmen,  "  pump  pipes  "  will 
be  more  pointedly  advanced  in  the  interest  of  the  drawing 
office  as  a  whole.  True  it  is  in  many  instances  that  we  find 
men,  with  large  experience  and  worthily  holding  first-class 
appointments,  who  have  never  been  in  touch  with  a  foundry 
at  all. 

It  is  likewise  too  true  that  many  excellent  draughtsmen 
know  not  the  most  elementary  parts  of  moulding.  Of  course, 
that  is  their  misfortune,  doubtless  due  to  circumstances  over 
which  they  had  no  control.  Therefore,  in  view  of  these  facts, 
and  all  the  circumstances  relating  thereto,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  our  efforts  on  the  lines  suggested  will  at  least  in  some 
small  way  bring  the  foundry  nearer  the  drawing  office,  and 
thus  assist  the  young  and  inexperienced  men,  for  which  this 
short  treatise  is  specially  intended. 

It  has  come  within  the  writer's  experience  to  explain  in  a 
general  way  the  modus  operandi  of  moulding  many  things,  but 
nothing  seemed  to  be  more  difficult  of  comprehension  to  the 
uninitiated  than  the  moulding  and  casting  of  a  pipe.  All  seemed 
to  grasp  easily  the  outside  or  formation  of  the  cope,  but  the 
difficulty  of  making  the  core  which  forms  *•  the  hole,"  as  it  has 
been  put,  or  internal  diameter,  seemed  to  be  the  stumbling 
block  to  all. 

Pump  pipes,  as  a  rule,  give  but  little  concern  in  moulding, 
but  to  the  engineer  they  are  a  vital  question,  and  so  these 
should  all  be  tested  hydraulically,  to  at  least  double  their 
working  pressure.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  flanges,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  64,  are  bracketed.  Some  engineers  hold  these 
to  be  indispensable  to  pumps  and  pump  pipe  flanges,  while 


104 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


others  maintain  the  reverse.  The  objections  are  based  on  the 
flanges  being  weakened,  by  spongy  parts  about  the  brackets, 
which  are  filleted  in  touch  with  the  flange.  Such, 
undoubtedly,  is  the  influence  of  all  brackets  that  are  on  flanges, 
and  is  caused  by  internal  shrinkage  after  casting.  But  this 
evil  has  its  remedy,  and  the  principle  of  bracketing  flanges 
need  not  be  condemned  wherever  they  are  wanted  or  are 
imperative. 

Ordinary  piping,  where  the  flanges  are  normal  and  work  in 
the  horizontal  position,  have  no  particular  need  for  brackets, 
so  long  as  they  are  well  filleted,  and  are  not  subjected  to 
abnormal  knockings  or  strains  while  working.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  if  pipes  have  to  do  their  work  vertically,  as  in  the 
shaft  of  a  mine,  where  the  unexpected  frequently  happens, 


:-. ;:  .     ..  . T/-. 


FIG.  64. 

brackets  will  hold  the  flanges  to  the  body  of  pipes  in  a  way 
utterly  impossible  without  them.  In  short,  brackets  are  indis- 
pensable adjuncts  to  pump  pipes  where  a  strong  and  secure 
flange  is  wanted.  The  same  applies  to  flanges  that  are  of 
abnormal  dimensions,  both  for  safety  of  handling  during 
manufacture  and  transit,  not  to  mention  their  efficiency  for 
duty  afterwards.  Doubtless  brackets  give  a  little  more  trouble 
to  the  founder,  and  in  some  cases  it  would  perhaps  be  better 
to  place  a  bracket  between  each  alternate  hole,  instead  of  one 
between  each  hole  in  the  flanges. 

Again,  and  to  return  more  particularly  to  what  concerns  the 
moulding  of  the  job,  in  Fig.  64  everything  is  seen  in  position 
previous  to  casting  horizontally,  and  a  study  of  this  figure 
will  make  clear  to  the  uninitiated  the  whys  and  wherefores 


SPECIAL  PIPES-GREEN-SAND  AND   DRY-SAND        105 

of  pipe  moulding.  As  will  be  seen,  A  A  are  the  riser  basins, 
B  the  pouring  basin,  C  the  core  bar  and  core  complete,  D  the 
mould  as  formed  in  the  moulding  box.  With  such  a  view  it 
will  readily  be  conceded  that  not  much  more  need  be  added  by 
way  of  explanation,  in  so  far  as  moulding  a  pipe  on  jobbing 
lines  is  concerned,  because  to  the  practical  moulder  there  is 
little  to  give  here,  and  to  the  non-practical,  presumably,  it 
would  be  less  interesting  to  narrate  how  a  pump  pipe  is 
moulded,  further  than  to  say  that  it  is  a  dry-sand  mould  that 
Fig.  64  is  intended  to  represent. 

But  the  question  may  be  asked,  Could  it  not  be  cast  in  green- 
sand  ?  The  answer  to  this  is  an  affirmative  one.  Although  to 
mould  "pump  pipes"  in  green- sand  is  not  a  desirable  thing 
to  do,  still,  if  circumstances  compel  one  to  do  so,  it  can  be 
done,  although  at  greater  cost  as  compared  with  dry-sand 
moulding.  Many  have  just  the  one  idea  of  classing  and 
pricing  castings,  as,  according  to  their  standard,  loam  is  the 
most  costly,  dry-sand  comes  next,  and  green-sand  is  the 
cheapest  of  all. 

This,  although  the  most  popular  way  of  looking  at  prices 
in  general,  does  not  hold  good  in  every  case,  and  "pump 
pipes  "  are  an  exception  to  this  rule.  And  no  person,  gener- 
ally speaking,  can  satisfactorily  cast  pump  pipes  to  pay  in 
open  market  competition  or  give  general  satisfaction  to  all 
concerned  unless  by  dry-sand  or  loam  moulding,  which  may 
be  resorted  to  with  some  of  the  larger  diameters  by  streakling 
or  sweeping  in  similar  boxes  to  the  dry-sand  ones  when  a 
pattern  is  not  procurable. 

Core  Making. — As  is  commonly  known,  the  core  is  made  up 
of  two  "  coats,"  the  first  composed  of  straw  rope  and  black 
loam  rubbed  on  to  the  straw  rope,  and  calipered  to  the  size 
wanted.  This  being  dried  in  the  oven  or  stove,  it  is  then 
taken  therefrom,  put  on  to  the  trestles  again,  and  receives  the 
second  coat  of  loam,  and  made  to  finished  size.  The  second 
coat,  known  as  "  red  loam,"  being  made  from  river-sand,  with 
a  judicious  portion  of  clay.  The  core,  being  thus  finished  to 
the  size  wanted,  is  again  run  into  the  oven,  dried,  and  after 
being  blackwashed  and  again  dried,  is  ready  for  use.  This  is 
somewhat  summarised,  but.  a  study  of  Fig.  64  may  convey  to 


106 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


those  outside  foundry  practice  at  least  some  of  the  infor- 
mation wanted. 

Position  of  Casting. — Again,  in  referring  to  Fig.  64,  it  will 
be  noticed  that  it  shows  the  horizontal  position  of  casting. 
Some  may  suppose  this  to  be  a  mistake,  but,  instead  of  this 
being  so,  it  can  be  proved  to  have  its  advantages  over  the 
inclined  or  "  declivity  "  position,  which  some  engineers  main- 
tain to  be  the  ideal  way  of  casting  pump  pipes. 

Fig.  65  is  but.a  skeleton  sketch  intended  to  show  the  "  decliv- 
ity "  in  casting  to  be  something  like  the  angle  of  35  degrees, 
which  is  the  most  popular  position  in  which  dry-sand  pipes  are 


FIG.  65. 


cast.  But  although  this  is  so,  the  losses  through  "  cold-shut  " 
are  much  in  excess  of  any  other  position,  and  the  curious  thing 
about  it  is  that  cold  shut  is  more  liable  to  be  at  the  bottom 
end,  in  the  region  of  the  arrow,  Fig.  65,  than  any  other 
part  of  the  casting.  This  may  be  surprising  to  many,  as 
owing  to  the  fact  of  the  bottom  end  having  the  greatest 
pressure,  we  naturally  expect  this  part  to  be  more  dense, 
and  thus  give  greater  security  for  its  ultimate  test 
hydraulically. 

We  might  at  this  juncture  make  a  slight  digression,  and 
explain  what    cold-shut  really  is.     Briefly  put,  it  means  a 


SPECIAL  PIPES-GREEN-SAND   AND  DRY-SAND        107 

meeting  of  metal  in  a  mould  from  either  point  of  the  compass 
with  a  film  of  oxide  of  iron  floating  in  front  (see  Fig.  40),  and 
wherever  a  meeting  of  oxide-laden  metal  takes  place,  the  two 
surfaces  of  metal,  although  forced  together  with  great 
pressure,  will  not  unite,  with  the  result  that  the  metal  is 
here  divided  as  distinctly  for  all  practical  purposes  as  it  is 
possible  for  it  to  be.  Obviously  these  surfaces  can  have  no 
affinity  for  each  other,  neither  are  the  defects  seen  on  the 
surface,  but  when  broken  up  cold-shut  in  metal  is  as  prominent 
as  a  knot  is  in  a  piece  of  wood.  "  Cold-shut"  and  "cold- 
shot,"  although  synonymous  in  foundry  practice,  and  produce 
the  same  effect,  are  due  to  different  causes  which  need  not  be 
considered  at  present. 

But  to  return  to  Fig.  65  and  follow,  with  the  mind's  eye,  the 
fluid  metal  poured  into  the  basin,  and  the  distance  it  has  to 
run  before  it  reaches  the  bottom 
flange,  it  will  be  seen  that  this 
cannot  be  done  without  an  accu- 
mulation of  the  oxide  of  iron,  or 
kish  and  dirt,  gathered  on  the 
way.  This  admitted,  Fig.  65  is 
lined  to  illustrate  as  well  as  may 
be  the  effect  produced  as  the  metal 
rises  in  the  mould  at  the  time  of  FlG  66 

pouring.      Special  note    may  be 

taken  of  the  greatest  oxide  line  (see  arrow,  Fig.  65),  as  it  is  at 
this  point  that  the  greatest  evil  is  created  by  this  mischievous 
element  in  metal,  which  is  the  cause  of  many  defects  in  all 
classes  of  castings.  This  is  seldom  seen  to  the  naked  eye,  and, 
where  no  pressure  or  strain  is  involved,  as  a  rule  does  but  little 
harm. 

The  only  way  to  avoid  cold- shut  on  the  declivity  position  of 
casting  pump  pipes  or  similar  piping  is  to  cast  with  the  softest 
of  iron,  and  at  a  milky  white  heat.  Even  in  this  way  you 
can  never  be  sure  of  success,  because  not  infrequently  the 
kish  gets  caught  in  the  "joint,"  and  if  it  remains  there  a  cold- 
shut  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  inevitably  follows.  But,  after 
all,  were  the  trouble  of  declivity  casting  not  as  depicted, 
this  position,  I  hold,  is  the  most  favourable  way  of  pouring, 


108  FACTS   ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 

and  where  circumstances  favour  no  other  position  see  to  it 
that,  as  mentioned,  soft  iron  is  used  whose  fusible  contents 
are  high,  and  cast  at  as  great  a  heat  as  will  suit  all  points 
in  connection  with  the  job. 

But  should  Fig.  64  be  adopted,  there  is  little  or  no  danger 
from  oxidization,  which  means  no  cold-shut,  as  the  oxide 
which  is  floating  on  the  surface  rises  on  both  sides  of 
the  core  alike  (see  Fig.  64),  and  meets  at  the  top  right  in 
touch  with  the  pouring  gates  (£);  it  is  here  cut  up  and 
destroyed,  and  assimilated  with  the  hottest  of  the  metal. 
But  should  any  of  it  have  perchance  escaped  assimilation, 
there  is  every  likelihood  of  it  finding  its  way  into  the  riser 
basins  A  A,  Fig.  64,  which  doubtless  receives  much,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  the  dirt,  which  otherwise  would  have  become  incorpo- 
rated with  the  metal  right  along  the  highest  part  of  the  mould. 
Some  may  imagine  there  is  great  risk  of  the  core  scabbing 
by  casting  as  shown  at  Fig.  64,  but  the  writer  has  not 
found  it  so.  Given  good  loam  and  a  thoroughly  dried 
core,  made  by  a  good  core-maker,  success  is  practically 
assured. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  position  of  the  gates  when  the  pipe  cast 
on  the  declivity  position  or  "  the  bank." 

COEE  CLIPPING 

With  many  moulders  the  act  of  clipping  a  core  is  not  an 
easy  matter,  and  even  some  good  sand  moulders  are  not  quite 
comfortable  in  this  operation  when  perchance  they  may  have 
to  undertake  the  "  clipping  "  of  a  branch  core  for  a  pipe,  valve 
casing,  or  some  such  casting  having  a  branch  detached  from 
the  main  core.  Of  course,  when  there  happens  to  be  a  run  of 
such  work  requiring  "  clipped  branch  cores,"  core  boxes,  which 
form  the  "  clip,"  are  usually  made,  and  by  this  means  the 
moulder,  if  inexperienced  in  clipping  ordinary  branch  cores,  is 
saved  a  good  deal  of  nasty  work,  and  just  because  of  this  a 
hint  or  two  may  be  the  more  serviceable  where  such  practice 
has  been  neglected. 

This  question,  from  an  engineer's  point  of  view,  means 
much  for  the  future  of  those  castings  that  are  exposed  to 


COEE  CLIPPING 


109 


waters  which  contain  the  elements  of  rapid  corrosion,  because 
of  the  broken  skin  inside  of  the  casting  at  all  times  associated 
with  the  "  clipping  "  of  cores,  as  seen  at  Fig.  67.  Broken 
skin  inside  a  casting  is  a  two-fold  evil  to  be  avoided  as  far  as 
it  is  practically  possible ;  first,  because  of  its  susceptibility  to 
corrosion,  and  second,  because  of  its  tendency  to  weaken  the 
particular  spot  affected,  and  when  thus  affected  the  tendency 
to  "  sweat "  while  under  the  pressure  of  the  hydraulic  ram 
becomes  considerably  intensified.  Consequently,  the  moulder 
in  making  such  castings  should  always  work  for  the  least 
possible  internal  "fin."  This,  as  a  principle  in  casting  work 
that  has  got  to  be  hydraulically  tested,  is  worthy  of  the 
moulder's  serious 
and  best  atten- 
tion. 

As  will  be  ob- 
served, the  fore- 
going applies  in 
a  special  degree 
to  heavy  castings, 
and  if  they  be 
pumps,  the 
smaller  class  are 
usually  cored  by 
one  complete 
core,  so  that  in 

such  cases  we  see  that  the  interior  of  the  casting  throughout 
is  entirely  free  from  "broken  skin,"  and,  other  things  being 
equal,  becomes  an  ideal  pump  from  every  standpoint. 

Having  now  made  clear  the  difference  that  exists  between 
pumps  or  such  cylindrical  castings  that  are  clean  and  clear 
from  irregular  fin  and  "broken  skin"  inside,  we  shall  next 
treat  of  the  different  methods  that  may  be  adopted,  and  which 
are  the  most  suitable  when  circumstances  compel  branch 
cores  to  be  used  in  the  "  core  plan  "  or  arrangement  of  cores 
in  a  mould. 

Perhaps  the  term  "  clip,"  or  "  clipping,"  is  a  local  one  in  the 
foundry,  and  in  order  to  make  it  the  better  understood,  as  the 
term  is  applied  here,  it  is  those  points  of  the  branch  core  as 


FIG.  67. 


110  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

illustrated  at  Fig.  67  that  the  term  is  derived  from — hence  we 
form  the  "clip  branch"  to  fit  up  against  the  main  core,  A, 
Fig.  67.  There  are  three  ways  of  clipping,  and  to  each  of 
these  we  direct  attention  as  they  appear  at  Figs.  67,  68,  and  69. 
Figs.  68  and  69  are  illustrations  showing  the  advantage  of  the 
"  swell,"  SS,  which  is  on  the  main  core  of  all  cores  that  are 
clipped  as  illustrated  by  Figs.  68  and  69.  In  Fig.  67  we  have 
the  usual  way  for  the  moulder  to  adopt  as  it  involves  no 
trouble  further  than  forming  the  clip  on  the  core.  This, 
however,  means  more  than  some  jobbing  moulders  are 
capable  of  doing  in  workmanlike  fashion,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  bad  in  price  and  practice,  whether  the  core  is  made 
in  sand  or  loam.  If  it  should  be  a  sand  core  that  is  to  be 
dealt  with,  then,  by  all  means,  form  the  clip  while  it  is  green ; 
but  if  it  be  loam  with  which  the  branch  core  is  made,  the 
usual  practice  is  to  make  it  out  of  the  solid  core  by  carding 
or  otherwise,  until  the  desired  finish  for  fitting  it  up  against 
the  main  core  is  secured,  as  seen  at  Fig.  67.  However,  there 
is  still  another  method,  and  a  speedier  one  too,  although  to 
some  perhaps  not  very  workmanlike.  Still,  it  is  in  many  ways 
commendable.  The  first  thing  to  do  'is  to  square,  in  some 
way,  the  end  of  the  branch  core  preparatory  to  proceeding  to 
put  the  "clip"  on  ;  thereafter  place  a  sufficiently  large  piece  of 
paper  over  the  back  of  the  main  core  for  whatever  size  of 
clip  we  may  wish  to  make ;  then,  with  the  core  thus  prepared, 
sufficient  loam  is  placed  on  the  paper,  and  the  branch  core 
is  immediately  placed  on  the  main  core,  and  squared  on 
this  bed  of  soft  loam,  and  by  "  faking  "  and  firming  all  round 
the  "  roughing  "  of  the  clip  is  completed.  This  being  done, 
all  is  allowed  to  stiffen,  and  when  finishing  it,  make  sure  that 
the  points  of  the  clips  as  seen  at  Fig.  67  are  finished  clear  to 
admit  of  the  branch  core  being  placed  without  breakage  while 
finding  its  way  up  against  the  main  core  of  the  mould  for 
which  it  is  intended. 

Now  as  to  the  results  in  this  method  of  clipping  :  First  of 
all,  there  is  the  danger  of  the  points  being  washed  away 
during  the  process  of  pouring  the  mould,  and  second,  we  are 
confronted  with  the  evil  of  a  nasty  fin  at  the  clip  of  the  branch 
which  must  be  broken  and  "faked" — not  chipped,  as  the 


COEE  CLIPPING 


111 


position  precludes  any  possibility  of  doing  so — but,  although 
faked  thus  it  is,  after  all,  the  best  that  can  be  done,  and  the 
fin  so  treated  is  allowed  to  pass  as  a  finished  job.  Tliis 
then  is  what  happens  with  branches  in  general  that  are 
clipped  after  the  fashion  of  Fig.  67.  The  longer  the  branch 
the  more  difficult  is  the  job,  nevertheless  wherever  this  method 
of  clipping  is  practised  the  best  fettlers  can  do  no  better  than 
what  is  here  suggested. 

Why  this  practice  is  allowed  to  go  on  in  many  of 
what  are  called  up-to-date  shops  is  not  easy  of  explanation, 
yet,  if  the  person  responsible  for  the  foundry  has  not  a  full 
appreciation  of  what  particular  duty  is  expected  of  the  cast- 
ings passing  through  his  hands  he  will  be  content  to  knock 
the  work  through,  irrespective  of  all  other  considerations  but 
his  tonnage  in  the  foundry.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  in  these 
hurry-scurry  days  of  push  and 
bustle,  better  methods  of  economi- 
cal working  and  superior  work- 
manship are  lost  sight  of  altogether. 
Hence  it  is  that  at  times  money 
is  lost  in  the  foundry  that  need 
not  be  if  the  moulder  had  the 
knowledge  of  what  to  order,  and  the  pattern-maker  had  the 
will  thereafter  to  make  \vhat  are  frequently  but  trifles  for 
the  expediting  of  the  work  of  the  moulders,  and  its  conse- 
quent saving  and  better  castings  for  all  concerned.  This  job 
of  clipping  cores  is  really  a  case  in  point,  and  specially  as  it 
refers  to  the  saddle  core-box,  not  shown,  for  ramming  the 
clips  on  the  back  of  the  main  core,  and  as  illustrated  at  Figs.  68 
and  69.  In  these  Figs.  SS  shows  the  core  clips  either  built 
on  with  loam  or  ramme.l  with  sand,  either  of  which  is  done 
when  the  main  core  is  finished  to  size,  and  thereafter  allowed 
time  to  stiffen.  These  clips  as  a  rule  when  being  rammed 
are  strengthened  or  supported  by  sprigs,  brads,  or  irons 
driven  into  the  main  core  and  otherwise  handled  in  the  way 
common  to  such  cores. 

With  a  clear  view  of  Figs.  68  and  69  (double),  along  with 
what   has   been    stated,  the  meaning  and  value   of    such   a 


FIG.  68. 


11 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


method  of  clipping,  as  illustrated  by  the  figures  in  question, 
will  doubtless  be  obvious,  inasmuch  as  we  avoid  the  danger  of 
the  points  (v.  Fig.  67)  washing  away.  In  connection  with  this 
point  we  see  at  once  that  the  joint,  as  it  occurs  through  <7, 
Fig.  69,  can  be  made  an  absolute  fit,  thereby  getting  a  clean 
and  clear  inside  skin  on  the  casting,  when  the  branch  core  is 
butted  fair  up  against  the  main  core  face  SS  (and  is  ripped, 
repaired  and  blackwashed  if  need  be).  However,  this  is  not 
often  resorted  to,  as  these  branch  core  joints  when  carefully 
manipulated  have  such  a  small  fin,  and  from  the  handy  position 
they  occupy  on  the  branch  when  compared  with  Fig.  67  no 

difficulty  whatever 
is  experienced  in 
chipping  and 
finishing  an  un- 
challengeable job. 
This  method  is 
more  particularly 
adapted  to  the 
heavier  class  of 
branch  core  prac- 
tice ;  the  lighter 
class  in  this  divi- 
sion of  work  is 
provided  for  and 

illustrated  at  Fig.  68.  In  this  figure  the  practice  is  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  the  same  as  Fig.  69,  the  only  differ- 
ence being  the  plug  end.  As  will  be  seen,  with  such  a 
core  as  this  sectional  elevation  shows,  when  placed  in  the 
mould,  the  branch  D,  with  its  plug  end,  is  simply  butted 
up  against  the  face  of  the  figure  referred  to.  The  plug 
branch  as  shown  is  for  the  safety  of  the  core  against 
rising  at  the  time  of  casting,  and  the  plug  being  comparatively 
a  tight  fit  in  its  socket  secures  the  branch  from  other 
mishaps  common  to  such  class  of  work,  no  nails  or  other 
artificial  aid  being  necessary.  Briefly,  we  summarise  the 
clipping  of  branch  cores  thus  :  adopt  Fig.  68  for  all  dia- 
meters up  to  6  ins.,  Fig.  69  for  all  other  sizes  above  6  ins., 
and  wherever  the  method  of  Fig.  67  is  practised,  then  the 


FIG.  69. 


MACHINE  AND  SNAP  FLASK  MOULDING  n;j 

least  that  can  be  said  about  it  is  that  it  is  bad  and  profitless 
practice  for  all  concerned. 


MACHINE  AND  SNAP  FLASK  MOULDING 

It  is  difficult  to  say  exactly  when  machine  moulding  was 
first  introduced  in  founding.  Some  would  have  us  believe 
it  to  be  quite  a  modern  invention,  but,  on  the  contrary,  we 
have  been  more  or  less  associated  with  it  for  the  last  thirty- 
five  years,  and  during  all  that  period  nothing  very  new  or  novel 
has  happened  to  its  mechanism.  Indeed,  it  seems  we  cannot 
get  past  the  ordinary  squeeze  or  force  produced  by  steam, 
pneumatic,  or  hydraulic  pressure,  and  while  hand-ramming  was 
strongly  denounced  twenty-five  years  ago,  it  is  now  regarded  by 
some  machine  specialists  in  these  days  as  the  most  economical 
system  of  ramming  in  all  forms  of  machine  moulding.  The 
foregoing  as  a  rule  is  not  without  exceptions,  and  perhaps  the 
best  advantage  to  be  got  in  machine  moulding  (if  there  be  an 
advantage  at  all)  is  with  a  certain  class  of  medium  work  that 
is  executed  by,  it  may  be,  thousands  of  tons,  or  that  which 
repeats  itself  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word. 

Certain  it  is,  much  that  was  put  on  the  machine  plate 
within  the  writer's  experience  has  long  since  been  scrapped, 
and  a  return  made  to  the  old  stereotyped  style  of  bedding  in 
the  floor,  resulting  in  at  least  50  per  cent,  saving  with  these 
castings  when  compared  with  the  cost  of  production  in  what  is 
known  as  machine  moulding.  The  above  refers  to  cylindrical 
work  with  attachments  where  no  machine  ramming  by  com- 
pression is  practicable.  However,  where  the  plainest  of  work 
is  moulded,  that  is  to  say,  with  patterns  that  are  free  from 
projections,  or  any  attachment  of  pattern  interfering  with  the 
direct  force  of  the  ram  when  pressing,  such  ideal  work  ought 
to  be  produced  at  a  rate  on  the  machine  not  possible  off  it. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  all  machine  work  is  repeat 
work.  Now  this  is  where  many  err  in  calculating  costs  in  the 
foundry,  and  not  infrequently  when  things  look  rather  costly 
in  this  department  they  quite  naturally  turn  to  the  moulding 
machine  as  a  panacea  for  those  evils  of  extraordinary  cost. 
But,  alas,  for  inexperience  !  such  changes  too  frequently  fall 


114  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

much  short  of  their  anticipations.  In  all  such  cases  look 
in  the  first  place  to  equipment,  and  make  it  as  good  as  you 
would  that  of  a  moulding  machine. 

Really  it  is  largely  a  question  of  equity  between  floor  and 
moulding  machine,  patterns  and  equipment,  and  perhaps  it  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  wherever  any  piece  of  mechanism 
bears  the  appellation  "machine,"  and  yet,  at  the  same  time, 
has  no  record  of  reducing  the  physical  toil  of  its  operator, 
such  has,  in  the  author's  opinion,  no  right  whatever  to  be 
classed  as  a  machine  connected  with  the  industrial  pursuits. 
It  is  a  pity  that  it  is  so,  especially  with  founding,  where  so 
much  abnormal  toil  is  done.  Further,  it  is  very  doubtful  if 
more  can  ever  be  done  by  machines  than  is  at  present  accom- 
plished. Moulding  as  a  craft  has  many  peculiarities  of  its 
own,  for,  while  form,  contour,  and  efficiency  suffices  in  most 
occupations,  such  is  very  far  from  meeting  the  wants 
fundamental  to  moulding. 

Consequently,  machine  moulding  such  as  is  known  in  found- 
ing becomes  very  circumscribed  in  scope  and  practice,  and  as 
a  result  we  may  take  it  that  the  jobbing  moulder  will  remain 
much  in  the  same  place  in  the  future  as  he  has  been  in  the 
past,  at  least,  in  so  far  as  mechanical  aid  in  his  business  is  con- 
cerned. But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  will  have  the  advantage, 
as  before,  of  outshining  the  machine  moulder  by  the  scope  of 
his  work  which  requires  him  to  use  his  intelligence ;  and  to 
this  he  should  always  aspire,  as  by  doing  so  he  will  be  the 
better  man  not  only  for  himself,  but  for  his  employer  also. 

All  the  same,  machine  moulding,  in  the  author's  opinion, 
has  come  to  stay,  but  we  can  only  regard  it  as  being  a  substi- 
tute with  the  "  tub "  or  "  bench "  for  small  work,  where 
plates  and  turn-over-boards  are  much  the  same  as  for 
machine  moulding.  Of  course,  with  the  machine  we  usually 
have  the  advantage  of  drawing  the  pattern  or  plate  by  a 
lever,  and  rapping  it  at  one  and  the  same  time,  which  is 
undoubtedly  an  advantage  in  many  cases. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  machine  has  the  advantage  of 
grouping  many  pieces  on  one  plate,  but  it  should  be  understood 
that  this  same  plate  which  accounts  for  so  many  castings  in  a 
box,  as  a  rule,  can  be  made  as  quickly  off  the  machine  as  on  it. 


MACHINE  AND   SNAP  FLASK  MOULDING  115 

Indeed,  where  the  boxes  are  a  little  unwieldly  for  lifting  on 
and  off  the  table  of  certain  types  of  hand-ramming  machines, 
in  many  such 'cases  the  operator  prefers  to  make  his  job 
off  the  machine  altogether  and  with  better  results  for  all 
concerned,  thus  proving  that  whatever  increased  output 
may  be  accredited  to  the  machine  in  question  is  rather  due 
to  its  equipment  and  not  to  mechanism  at  all.  But  whatever 
better  side  there  may  be  to  this  question,  we  ungrudgingly 
give  it,  so  that  wherever  machine  and  plant  can  adapt  them- 
selves to  advantage  by  reducing  cost  of  production,  then  by 
all  means  let  it  be  done. 

There  is  but  little  more  to  say  on  this  question  beyond  the 
need  there  is  for  careful  ramming  in  this  class  of  work.  All 
gates  should  be  part  of  the  patterns,  and  so  save  time  in 
cutting  them,  leaving  nothing  to  be  done  except  prepare  the 
mould  for  pouring.  Use  but  little  water*  when  swabbing 
patterns,  i.e.,  if  the  castings  are  light  metals,  previous  to 
rapping  and  drawing  ;  this  will  considerably  free  the  castings 
from  hard,  brittle,  and  white  fins  and  irregular  edges.  And 
should  the  castings  be  of  light  metal  section,  lift  them  the 
same  day  that  they  are  poured,  so  as  to  prevent  them  rusting 
by  lying  too  long  in  their  boxes. 

"  Snap  Flask  "  is  a  special  form  of  moulding  whereby  any 
number  of  castings  may  be  secured  from  the  same  moulding- 
box.  This  particular  box,  which  is  gripped  and  hinged  at 
opposite  corners,  may  be  of  round,  square,  or  oblong  shape, 
each  of  which  is  adapted  for  the  greatest  economy  of  sand 
and  convenience  in  handling — two  very  important  factors  in 
the  cheap  production  of  the  class  of  work  for  which  the  snap 
flask  is  intended. 

This  system  has  for  many  years  been  in  much  favour  in 
light  work  foundries,  where  a  large  amount  of  work  common 
to  "  bench  "  or  "  tub  "  was  done  formerly,  and  where  the 
necessary  plant  formed  a  considerable  asset,  but  by  the  intro- 
duction of  one  snap-flask  box  in  the  day's  work  of  each  moulder 
on  this  class  of  work,  instead  of  ten,  twenty,  or  perhaps  more, 
where  each  casting  or  box  of  castings  had  to  count  for  the 
same  number  of  boxes,  the  economy  in  plant  must  be  obvious. 

*  Wherever  this  is  practicable. 

i  2 


116  FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

These  boxes  are  made  light  and  handy,  and  may  either  be 
made  to  work  on  the  machine  or  off  it.  In  every  case  these 
boxes  are  barless,  but  must  have  extra  good  "  kep  "  in  the 
form  of  say  a  half-inch  projection  running  round  the  inside, 
top,  and  bottom  of  both  boxes  alike.  In  proceeding,  first  the 
drag  is  rammed  and  placed  where  it  is  to  be  poured  ;  second, 
the  top  flask  is  rammed  and  closed  on  top  of  its  neighbour. 
This  done  the  mould  is  complete,  is  next  planted  where  it  is 
to  be  cast,  and  by  the  snapping  of  the  gripper  from  its  keeper 
the  box  is  relieved  and  again  prepared  for  repeating  the 
operation  of  making  another  of  the  moulds  just  completed. 

MOULDING  CYLINDERS  AND   CYLINDER  CORES 

It  is  generally  admitted  amongst  moulders  that  no  class  of 
work  gives  more  trouble  and  annoyance  than  the  casting  of 
cylinders,  not  only  from  the  intricacies  which  often  accom- 
pany the  job,  but  the  general  nature  of  it.  From  the  time  it 
comes  into  the  foundry  until  cast  and  passed  safely  through 
the  machinist  department  and  hydraulically  tested  no  one 
can  be  sure  that  his  work  is  good. 

Ramming. — Of  course  the  natural  beginning  is  the  ramming 
of  the  job,  after  which  will  be  considered  other  matters  as 
they  develop  while  working  out  the  mould  to  the  final  stage 
of  pouring.  The  ramming  of  the  job  is  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance in  securing  a  good  casting,  and  the  moulder  who 
thoroughly  understands  how  to  ram  his  work  has  gained  the 
mastery  of  one  of  the  chief  points  which  help  to  make  an 
intelligent  and  successful  moulder.  Certainly  there  is  not  so 
much  danger  in  ramming  a  dry-sand  mould  as  there  is  in  the 
ramming  of  a  green-sand  one,  but  still,  too  much  hard  ramming 
will  not  do  for  dry  sand,  of  which  cylinder  moulds  are  commonly 
made.  Therefore,  the  surest  and  safest  rule  to  go  by  is  to 
ram  as  if  it  were  a  green-sand  job. 

Venting. — As  regards  venting  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
that  this  should  be  done,  except  there  be  projections,  or  as 
they  are  commonly  known  to  the  moulder,  "  pockets,"  as  the 
drying  of  the  mould  makes  the  sand  so  porous  that  the  air 
passes  quite  freely  from  the  mould  without  the  aid  of  direct 


MOULDING  CYLINDEBS  AND   CYLINDEE  CORES       117 

venting.  This  and  the  expansion  of  the  irons  and  gaggers 
usually  interspersed  in  dry-sand  moulding  make  good  venting, 
and  especially  is  this  the  case  with  the  top-parts,  where 
hangers  are  usually  hung  on  the  bars  of  the  box,  which  give 
free  exit  of  the  gases  by  their  exposure.  Needless  to  say, 
"irons"  and  such  like  do  not  make  vents,  but  the  effects 
from  their  use  in  dry-sand  moulding  give  more  or  less  the 
necessary  space  for  relieving  a  mould  of  its  gases  at  the  time 
of  pouring.  This  is  brought  about  by  expansion  from  the 
heat  of  drying  the  moulds,  and  when  these  are  taken  from  the 
stove,  the  gaggers  or  hangers  previously  expanded  become 
considerably  contracted  previous  to  casting,  and  as  a  result 
the  space  for  venting  is  thus  formed.  Another  reason  why 
dry  sand  does  not  require  the  same  venting  as  is  given  to 
green  sand  is  that  by  drying  a  sand  mould  at  least  one-half 
of  its  gas-forming  constituents  is  destroyed,  so  between  the 
former  and  the  latter  we  see  at  a  glance  that  venting  of  a  truly 
dry-sand  mould — unless  there  are  projections  as  has  been 
mentioned — is  seldom  imperative.  Indeed,  experience  inclines 
more  to  "  sprigging  "  and  "  ironing  "  judiciously  than  venting 
in  dry  sand  moulding. 

Sprigging. — This  is  very  often  overdone,  but  it  must  be 
attended  to  with  discrimination.  There  is  no  necessity  for 
sprigging  unless  it  be  to  protect  the  mould  or  some  part  that 
may  have  started  with  the  drawing  of  the  pattern,  and  the 
better  we  "  iron  "  a  job  of  this  class  in  ramming,  the  fewer 
sprigs  will  be  used.  This  can  only  apply  to  cylinder  moulding ; 
that  which  is  moulded  and  dried  in  the  floor  requires  special 
consideration  for  itself  which  we  cannot  touch  upon  at  present. 

Finishing  the  Mould. — Finishing  is  one  of  the  divisions  in 
moulding  where  the  man  who  is  endowed  with  artistic  instincts 
has  an  opportunity  for  showing  his  gifts.  But  it  does  not 
always  follow  that  such  men  turn  out  the  most  beautiful 
castings.  On  the  contrary,  some  men  who  are  thus  gifted 
make  but  very  commonplace  moulders,  simply  because  the 
mind's  eye  has  never  been  trained  to  read  anything  in  foundry 
practice  beyond  the  surface.  A  beautiful  surface,  and  a 
symmetrically  complete  finished  mould,  may  after  all  turn  out 
a  scab  of  a  casting,  Such  completeness  in  form  and  beaut}7 


118  PACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

may  be  the  dominant  factor  of  success  in  many  trades,  but  it 
is  certainly  not  so  in  moulding.  The  fundamentals  to  be 
secured  which  underlie  the  beauty  of  a  well-finished  casting 
are,  first,  efficiency  of  the  mould  to  withstand  ferrostatic 
pressure,  and  second,  venting.  These  are  the  prime  factors 
to  be  attended  to  before  finishing  a  mould  can  be  proceeded 
with  in  safety.  Finished  on  the  lines  suggested,  there  is  every 
chance  of  a  good  casting  being  the  result  in  so  far  as  those 
points  referred  to. 

The  moulder's  first  duty  at  the  moment  of  drawing  his 
pattern  is  to  prove  that  his  mould  in  every  part  is  sufficient 
before  he  applies  a  tool  to  finish  it.  He  must  first  firm,  sprig, 
and  vent,  if  need  be,  and  when  these  are  completed  to  his 
satisfaction,  use  the  tools  for  the  rest,  but  avoid  polishing  to 
the  extent  of  hiding  the  grain  of  the  sands,  a  mistake  too  often 
committed,  and  for  which  scabbing  is  most  frequently  account- 
able in  green-sand  moulding,  and  in  dry  sand,  scaling  and 
blistering,  according  to  the  position  of  casting.  Horizontal 
surfaces  are  very  liable  to  show  these  defects,  while  vertical 
surfaces  are  comparatively  free  from  such  danger. 

Further,  as  soon  as  the  pattern  is  "  drawn  " — and  I  need 
hardly  say  that  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  a 
good  "  draw  " — care  should  be  taken  to  sleak  down  the  joint, 
and  to  see  that  every  part  which  may  have  started  is  put  back 
into  its  proper  place,  so  that  when  it  comes  to  the  "  closing  " 
of  the  mould,  every  part  may  be  fair  and  free  from  crushing. 
Some  moulders  seem  to  think  that  because  it  is  a  dry-sand 
mould  any  amount  of  water  showered  on  it  before  finishing 
is  beneficial,  but  such  is  not  the  case.  No  doubt  water  is 
absolutely  essential  in  making  a  strong  mould,  but  if  it  is 
used  indiscriminately  so  as  to  cause  the  mould  to  be  glazed, 
the  consequence  will  be  that  the  black- wash  will  not  adhere  to 
it,  and,  as  a  natural  result,  there  is  every  likelihood  that  the 
skin  will  be  covered  with  black- wash  blisters  in  the  drying  of 
the  mould.  It  is  thus  better  to  avoid  the  free  use  of  water  ; 
but  if  it  be  desirable  to  strengthen  any  weak  part,  a  little  put 
on  after  it  is  finished  will  do  good,  i.e.,  if  there  is  time  for  its 
complete  absorption  before  black-washing. 

But  it  is  not  my  intention  to  treat  in  detail  every  minor 


MOULDING  CYLINDERS  AND   CYLINDER   CORES       119 

point  relative  to,  or  connected  with,  the  making  of  the  mould, 
believing  that  such  would  be  of  little  value  to  the  practical 
man  and  of  less  interest  to  the  uninitiated.  Hence  it  is 
unnecessary  to  treat  at  any  great  length  concerning  the 
working  of  the  black-wash,  further  than  to  say  that  the  drier 
the  mould  is  before  being  black-washed  the  better,  and  like- 
wise allowing  it  sufficient  time  to  stiffen  before  being 
sleaked  will  materially  assist  in  getting  a  good  skin  on  the 
casting.  Assuming  the  mould  to  have  been  black-washed  with 
an  ordinary  mineral  black-wash,  the  common  practice  is  to 
rough-sleek,  then  dust  with  plumbago  over  the  surface,  and 
afterwards  finish  off.  This  done,  a  thin  wash  with  plumbago 
made  or  mixed  with  either  clean  or  gum  water,  brings  out 
the  best  skin  possible  on  a  cylinder  casting  moulded  either  in 
dry  sand  or  loam. 

Core  making. — The  core  maker,  as  previously  stated,  should 
be  careful  to  avoid  ramming  too  hard,  as  any  core  so  treated 
is  difficult  to  vent,  and  likewise  difficult  for  the  dresser  or 
fettler  to  clean  from  the  casting.  He  must  also  take  par- 
ticular care  to  have  a  good  clear  vent,  as  this  is  the  all-impor- 
tant factor  in  core  making,  and  must  also  be  careful  before 
black-washing  to  see  that  the  surface  of  the  core  is  entirely 
free  from  glaze,  because  there  is  nothing  more  dangerous  in 
creating  "  blisters  "on  the  top  surface  of  a  casting  than  a  core 
with  a  glazed  surface.  The  term  blister  as  used  in  the  foundry 
is  a  little  ambiguous,  because  of  the  fact  that  no  disfiguration, 
as  is  common  to  blister  steel,  or  the  formation  of  a  blister  any- 
where else,  has  any  similarity  to  a  blister  on  a  casting.  A 
blister  is  a  blowhole  confined,  as  a  rule,  to  horizontal  surfaces, 
and  may  be  any  length,  say  from  £  in.  to  12  ins.  long,  and  its 
greatest  depth  may  be  \  in.  only. 

"  Blister  "  in  foundry  parlance  is  the  term  used  to  denote 
a  surface  defect  that  is  formed  by  imprisoned  gas  which 
invariably  is  the  result  of  a  hard,  dense,  or  glazed  core,  lying 
in  the  horizontal  position.  Blisters,  unless  broken  by  accident, 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  show  themselves  unless  by  colour,  or  the 
sense  of  sound,  to  a  practical  man.  The  symmetrical  surface 
of  a  casting  usually  remains  the  same  with  or  without  them, 
but  when  located,  and  the  thin  skin  of  iron  which  conceals 


120  FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

them  is  broken,  invariably  we  find  the  surface  which  deter- 
mines their  extent  to  be  as  smooth  as  a  piece  of  earthenware. 
Now  in  cylinder-sand  core  making  there  must  be  special  care 
taken  of  the  cores  or  parts  of  cores  that  have  to  occupy  a 
horizontal  position  while  casting,  for,  no  matter  with  what 
pressure  a  core  may  be  favoured,  glazed  surfaces  must  be 
avoided  if  we  wish  to  avoid  blistering,  which  is  common  to 
flat,  or  horizontal  surfaces.  See  "  Blowholes,"  Figs.  16,  17 
and  18. 

There  are  many  who  hold  the  opinion  that  this  error,  in  a 
general  way,  is  due  to  chaplets.  No  doubt  a  chaplet  which  is  not 
clean  and  is  corroded  with  rust  will  invariably  have  a  bad  effect ; 
yet,  after  a  careful  and  more  than  casual  study  of  the  subject,  1 
believe  that  greater  dangers  arise  from  a  hard  and  glazed  core. 
The  following  is  an  example :  I  was  once  engaged  making  a 
class  of  cylinders  which  had  a  crown  core,  having  from 
2  to  4  ft.  of  surface,  and  as  this  core  required  no  chaplets 
on  its  plain  surface  it  may  perhaps  astonish  my  readers  to 
know  that  I  was  very  much  annoyed  with  blisters.  Various 
things  were  suggested  and  tried  without  success.  Ultimately 
I  tried  ''carding,"  or  roughing  of  the  surface,  which  had  the 
desired  effect  and' put  an  end  to  the  annoyance.  From  this 
it  must  be  obvious  that  blisters  may  be  attributed  to  other 
causes  than  chaplets.  Chaplets  that  are  not  clean  should  be 
burned,  cleaned,  oiled,  or  creosoted,  and  if  this  be  attended  to 
the  most  satisfactory  results  attainable  should  follow.  See 
"  Chaplets,"  p.  42. 

Thus  far  the  foregoing  completes  the  moulding  proper,  in 
a  somewhat  summarised  manner,  and  we  will  now  treat  of  the 
closing  and  casting  of  the  mould. 

Closing. — This  is,  admittedly,  the  most  intricate  part  of 
the  whole  job,  and  also  the  dirtiest  part  ;  but  where  cylinder 
casting  is  specialised,  the  moulders  showing  the  greatest 
acumen  in  their  craft  as  moulders  are  the  men  selected  for 
coring,  closing,  and  casting.  Immediately  on  taking  the 
mould  from  the  stove  or  oven  the  moulder's  first  duty  is 
to  see  that  it  is  thoroughly  dried  before  proceeding  with  the 
"  closing."  He  should  be  satisfied  that  when  casting  it  there 
will  be  no  blowing  from  the  damp  which  invariably  gathers 


MOULDING  CYLINDEES  AND   CYLINDEE  CORES       121 

in  moulds  that  are  not  properly  dried.  But  should  there 
be  urgent  necessity  to  proceed  with  the  casting  in  the  face  of 
such  adverse  circumstances,  the  mould  should  remain  open  as 
long  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  comparatively  cold  before 
the  top  part  or  cope  is  put  on  for  the  last  time,  because  a 
mould  with  a  great  heat  in  it,  and  only  half  dried  when  closed 
in  this  condition,  quickly  generates  steam,  which  condenses 
about  the  waste  or  hemp  in  the  risers',  and  causes  a  great 
commotion,  the  metal  bubbling  and  blowing  as  it  fills  in  the 
riser  basins  at  the  time  of  casting. 

It  will  be  obvious  that  these  remarks  only  apply  to  the 
smaller  cylinders  that  are  cored,  closed,  and  cast  in  one  day. 
Further,  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  in  securing  the 
cores  with  the  chaplets  after  the  thicknesses  have  all  been 
adjusted,  which  very  often  is  the  means  of  saving  much  time 
and  trouble  ;  for  to  unfasten  a  core  that  has  been  secured  or 
jammed  frequently  ends  in  some  part  of  the  core  being  dis- 
placed or  broken ;  hence  the  necessity  of  having  the  thicknesses 
all  properly  adjusted  before  finally  jamming  the  chaplets. 
The  next  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  the  securing  of  the  vents, 
which  cannot  be  too  carefully  done,  as  there  is  nothing  more 
depressing  to  an  honest  working  moulder  than  to  see  his  whole 
work  going  to  destruction  before  his  eyes  through  lack  of 
proper  vents  to  allow  the  gases  to  get  away  freely  from  the 
cores,  thus  causing  a  bad  casting  which  might  have  been 
saved  by  the  exercise  of  proper  care.  With  cylinders  that 
have  the  steam  chest  or  casing  cast  on  them  it  is  necessary 
for  the  gases  from  the  steam  and  exhaust  ports  to  pass 
through  the  heart  of  the  casing  core.  The  simplest  manner 
of  venting  in  this  case  is  to  daub  the  joints  of  the  above  with 
white  or  any  other  suitable  loam ;  then  clear  the  vents  of  the 
ports  and  exhaust,  fill  the  heart  of  the  casing  with  fine  ashes,  and 
conduct  the  entire  vent  through  the  joint  of  the  boxes,  or  pass 
it  up  through  the  casing  bearing  in  the  top  part  by  the  aid 
of  a  suitable  tube  or  otherwise. 

This  method  of  grouping  all  vents  into  one  by  the  use  of 
suitable  ashes  in  the  heart  of  the  casing  core,  as  explained 
here,  and  in  "  loam  moulding,"  prevents  a  possible  accumu- 
lation of  moisture,  which  naturally  follows  the  use  of  individual 


122 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


vent  pins  that  are  sometimes  used  and  rammed  with  sand 
in  the  heart  of  these  casing  cores.  The  ashes  method  of 
venting  thus  may  be  said  to  be  absolutely  safe,  but  the  vent 
pins  used  as  mentioned  with  the  ramming  of  damp  sand,  is, 
to  say  the  least  of  it,  not  good  practice. 

Position  of  Casting. — There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion 
amongst  engineers  as  to  the  position  of  casting  cylinders;  some 
prefer  to  have  them  cast  vertically,  or  on  end,  others  want 
them  cast  horizontally.  The  majority,  I  believe,  favour  the 
former  position,  maintaining  that  to  cast  cylinders  horizontally 
causes  dirt  to  stick  about  the  barrel  and  create  a  faulty  bore. 
But  in  the  other  position  of  vertical  casting  there  is 
the  common  complaint  of  bad  flanges  on  the  top,  or  gate 
end,  of  the  casting  which  only  comes 
to  view  when  what  is  technically 
known  as  the  sinking  head  is  cut  off. 
These  imperfections  are  created  during 
'the  process  of  solidification  of  the 
metal  in  the  mould,  which  continues 
till  the  fluid  metal  is  thoroughly  set, 
the  dirt,  or  scoria,  common  to  the 
metal  having  found  its  way,  at  the 
time  of  pouring,  into  the  sinking  head,  the  place  specially 
designed  for  its  reception. 

These  shrink  cavities  are  always  greatest  on  cylinders  that 
have  a  disproportionate  thickness,  or  parts  attached  to  the  top 
flange,  as  it  is  seldom,  if  ever,  that  a  plain  barrel  of  normal 
thickness,  is  thus  affected.  Now  the  best  thing  that  can  be 
done  for  this  is  to  feed  the  casting  as  long  as  the  metal  is 
fluid;  but  unless  provision  is  made  for  the  feeders,  the  feeding 
will  be  useless,  consequently  the  sinking-head  must  be  made 
heavier  so  that  it  may  be  the  last  part  to  solidify,  as  shown 
in  Fig  70.  The  advantage  of  keeping  the  sinking-head  fluid 
until  all  the  parts  are  set  is  apparent,  as  if  it  be  thus  kept 
fluid,  and  the  casting  fed,  shrink-holes  or  such  like  will  in 
a  great  measure  be  minimised,  if  not  entirely  removed  in  the 
case  of  cylinders  that  are  cast  on  end. 

Should  disproportionate  thickness  of  metal  be  confined  to 
one  side  of  a  cylinder  only,  such  as  is  the  case  with  some 


FIG.  70. 


MOULDING  CYLINDEES  AND   CYLINDEE  COEES       123 


locomotive  cylinders,  and  where  the  framing  flange  is  on  the 
same  side  as  the  valve  face,  make  the  face  of  the  flange  (which 
is  the  top  flange)  \  in.  or  f  in.  thicker,  and  the  extra  thickness 
in  the  sinking-head  on  the  disproportionate  side  only ;  the 
same  to  be  tapered  off  in  eccentric-like  section.  Having  thus 
formed  a  heavier  sinking-head  as  indicated,  it  admits  of  heavier 
flow-gates  being  made,  which  gates  should  be  made  practically 
as  large  as  the  thickness  of  the  metal  contained  in  the  sinking- 
head  will  admit.  And  let  it  be  remembered  that  the  only 
preventative  against  cavities  is  compression  and  feeding  well 
by  some  means  or  other.  See  to  it  that  spongy  parts  as 
indicated  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  71  are  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  feeder,  otherwise  such  parts  will  undoubtedly  be 
faulty,  or  the  casting  may 
be  irretrievably  lost.* 

And  now  as  to  the  hori- 
zontal position,  which  has 
many  commendable  features 
about  it,  although  it  is  not 
without  its  troubles  also. 
In  this  position  we  get  the 
most  perfect  valve  face  pos- 
sible, and  valve  rod  paps  uni- 
formly solid,  while  the  barrel 

flange  faces,  which  are  so  apt  to  give  trouble  to  the  vertically 
cast  cylinders  (top  end  only),  are  entirely  sound  and  perfect. 
But  with  this  position,  as  with  all  others,  no  matter  how  we 
cast,  the  dirt  is  always  to  be  found  in  'some  undesirable  spot, 
so  in  this  case  it  is  in  the  extreme  bottom  part  of  the  barrel 
that  all  the  trouble  with  dirt  locates  itself.  This  is  worthy 
of  note,  because  it  mystifies  many  to  find  dirt  on  what  they 
consider  the  bottom  part  of  the  barrel,  as  the  bottom  or  face 
of  all  castings  invariably  turn  out  the  most  solid  and 
cleanest  part.  But  on  closer  examination  it  will  be  found 
that  the  top  of  the  mould,  paradoxically,  is  at  this  particular 

*  For  some  years  some  have  adopted  sinking-heads  of  abnormal  pro- 
portions, these  being  anywhere  between  1  ft.  and  3  ft.  in  depth,  and  from 
3  ins.  to  4  ins.  thick.  Notwithstanding  all  this  extra  metal,  shrink 
cavities  at  times  appear  on  the  "  face"  when  the  sinking-head  is  cut  off. 


FIG.  71. 


124  FACTS   ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

place  the  bottom  side  of  the  core,  a  point  which  ought  to  be 
remembered  when  discussing  the  subject  of  a  horizontal  cylinder 
casting.  In  order  to  make  this  perfectly  clear,  it  must  be 
realised  that  the  metal,  collecting  first  on  the  extreme  bottom, 
on  rising  comes  in  immediate  contact  with  the  core,  and  what- 
ever dirt  may  be  floating  on  the  surface  at  this  point  has  a 
strong  inclination  to  remain  there.  Hence  the  difficulty  of 
getting  the  barrels  of  cylinders  perfectly  clean  when  cast  on 
their  flat.  Nevertheless,  by  adopting  special  methods  of 
gating,  the  horizontal  and  declivity  positions  have  long 
been  the  fixed  practice  of  casting  in  some  of  the  best  loco- 
motive shops  in  the  kingdom.  Some  gate  one  way  and 
some  another ;  but  there  is  one  way  of  gating  that  should  be 
avoided,  and  yet  it  is  the  most  natural  way  in  general  practice — 
namely,  to  gate  off  the  joint.  Now  to  do  this  is  undoubtedly 
bad  practice,  as  the  metal  does  not  come  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  at  the  moment  of  pouring,  such 
as  is  the  case  with  an  admission  gate  at  a  lower  part  of  the 
casting.  Consequently  a  greater  percentage  of  scoria  is 
developed  before  the  metal-  comes  in  contact  with  the  bottom 
of  the  core,  and  as  the  pressure  increases  with  the  filling  of 
the  mould,  this  dirt  or  scoria  clings  more  tenaciously  on  the 
part  referred  to,  and  by  its  remaining  there,  the  hopes  of 
securing  a  good  casting  are  small  indeed.  This  is  a  stumbling 
block  to  many,  as  has  been  said,  as  they  maintain  that  all 
dirt,  kish,  or  impurities  must  find  their  way  to  the  top  of  the 
mould.  Such  is  quite  true,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
moulds  of  intricate  design  have  more  "  top  surfaces  "  than  the 
one  that  is  confined  to  the  highest  part  of  a  mould.  More- 
over, we  never  saw  a  faulty  bore  on  the  extreme  top  side 
of  a  cylinder-barrel  casting,  when  cast  in  the  horizontal 
position ;  even  although  this  part  was  not  all  that  could  be 
desired,  the  "bore"  invariably  turned  out  perfectly  clean,  all 
impurities  escaping  to  the  higher  extremities  of  the  casting. 

Again  it  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  many  excellent 
cylinders  have  been  cast  vertically  without  the  aid  of  a 
sinking-head  at  all,  and  such  are  the  variety  of  opinions  in 
foundry  practice  that  he  would  be  very  bold  who  said  that 
any  position  was  supremely  correct.  But  in  moulding,  as 


MOULDING   CYLINDERS  AND   CYLINDER  CORES       125 

in  many  other  things,  what  may  be  lauded  in  one  district  is 
condemned  in  another ;  this  we  may  take  to  be  the  inevitable 
experience  in  foundry  practice. 

But,  after  all  is  said  and  done  from  a  moulder's  point  of 
view,  the  details  of  pouring  these  castings  must  be  of  a  very 
superior  order.  Apart  altogether  from  the  mixing  and  melt- 
ing of  the  metal — which,  of  course,  does  not  belong  to  the 
moulder  who  makes  the  job — there  must  be  a  clean  ladle  con- 
taining good  and  clean  metal,  well  skimmed  and  cast  at  the 
right  temperature,  otherwise  the  best  efforts  made  by  the  best 
moulders  possible  will  be  lost  entirely. 

Much  mischief  at  times  is  caused  at  the  start  of  pouring  by 
dirt  getting  down  the  upright  gate  ;  and  it  must  be  noted  that 
this  mistake  is  more  dangerous  in  the  horizontal  than  in  the 
vertical  position.  But  in  casting  in  the  former  position,  and 
in  order  to  avoid  this  mistake,  some  try  the  plug  gate  for 
greater  safety  in  pouring.  The  pouring  basin  in  this  practice 
has  but  one  upright  gate,  which  is  plugged  before  starting  to 
pour ;  and  after  starting,  and  the  basin  being  filled  while  the 
pouring  is  going  on,  the  plug  is  withdrawn  at  the  proper 
time.  The  pouring  being  constant,  the  job  is  expected 
to  be  cast  without  any  dirt  finding  its  way  into  the  mould ;  at 
least,  such  is  the  idea  of  some,  and  although  it  may  appear  a 
little  Utopian  to  others,  it  is  here  and  there  in  constant  practice. 

Writing  from  the  standpoint  of  lengthy  experience  in 
moulding  and  casting  cylinders  for  wind,  water,  steam,  gas, 
and  oil,  and  taking  these  in  their  broadest  application  as  they 
relate  to  successful  moulding  and  casting  in  the  foundry,  I 
say,  as  a  principal,  cast  vertically  and  feed  well.  Of  course, 
in  the  casting  of  cylinders  there  must  be  exceptions  to  this 
rule,  but  not  with  those  that  are  jacketed,  a  class  which,  to  do 
justice,  requires  to  be  dealt  with  separately. 

'JACKETED   CYLINDERS 

In  this  division  of  cylinder  moulding  we  have  all  the  cores 
common  to  the  various  types  of  cylinders,  and  the  jacket  core 
in  addition,  so  that  all  jacket  cylinders  must  in  consequence 
be  more  critical  to  mould  and  cast  than  those  cylinders  that  are 


126  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

not  jacketed.  This  class  of  cylinder  is  fairly  well  represented 
in  steam,  gas,  and  petrol  engines.  In  some  localities, 
when  compared  with  twenty-five  years  ago,  the  jacketed  steam 
cylinder  casting  is  now  almost  a  thing  of  the  past.  Happily 
for  both  moulder  and  mechanic,  a  better  way  has  been  found 
of  forming  the  jacket  in  cylinders  by  the  fitting  into  the 
cylinder  body  that  handy  article  known  as  the  cylinder  liner. 
But  the  gas  engine  cylinder  in  general  use  is  still  cylinder  and 
liner  combined  in  one  casting.  The  petrol  cylinder  of  the 
motor  car  comes  next  with  its  complications  and  delicacy  of 
jacket  cores,  which  have  given  so  much  trouble  to  many,  and 
have  created  difficulties  that  have  been  very  hard  indeed  to 
overcome.  These  three  different  jacket  cores  will  form  the 
work  of  this  division  of  cylinder  moulding,  notwithstanding 
the  wide  field  of  interesting  cylinder  moulding  practice  allied 
thereto,  and  what  has  been  given  in  the  previous  section 
on  cylinder  casting  makes  it  unnecessary  to  deal  with  all  the 
details  in  jacket  cylinder  moulding. 

Steam  Cylinder  Jacket  Cores. — These  may  be  classed  as  of 
two  different  types — first,  dry-sand  cylinder  moulding  ;  second, 
loam  moulding.  When  made  for  dry-sand  castings,  these 
jacket  cores  are  usually  made  in  halves,  but  when  made  for 
loam  castings,  they  form,  with  very  few  exceptions,  one 
complete  core,  and  this  is  by  far  the  safest  and  surest  way  of 
handling  these  cores.  Jacket  cores  at  their  thickest  seldom 
measure  more  than  2J  ins.  thick,  even  with  the  largest 
diameters  of  steam  cylinders,  and,  of  course,  the  thicker  the 
core  can  be  made  the  safer  it  is  for  the  moulder. 

(1)  Sand  Jacket  Core. — When  moulding  a  jacket  cylinder 
in  dry  sand,  the  core,  as  has  been  said,  is  made  in  halves  ;  one 
is  fixed  on  the  bottom  half  of  the  mould,  while  the  other  is 
fastened  and  hung  firmly  to  the  top  part  in  such  a  way  as  to 
ensure  absolute  fixity  without  slackness  or  weakness  of  any 
kind,  otherwise  there  is  not  a  great  chance  of  the  casting 
being  a  good  one.  This  procedure  is  necessary  on  account  of 
the  jacket  core  being  entirely  enshrouded  in  metal,  and  by 
fixing  it  thus,  the  plug  cores  on  both  ends  of  the  jacket  for 
venting  and  fettling  the  casting  are  all  made  good  in  this 
respect  previously  to  commencing  to  core  the  cylinder  as  a 


JACKETED   CYLINDERS  127 

whole.  The  core-box  for  this  method  of  working  these  cores 
is  usually  made  of  a  shell  type,  i.e.,  half  circle,  full  length,  and 
entirely  open  to  the  inside  diameter  of  core.  These  half  cores 
are  better  when  made  in  loam,  and  should  not  be  attempted 
in  sand,  where  plug  vents  and  the  hanging  of  the  core  in  the 
top  part  as  described  is  imperative ;  but,  if  open  entirely  at  one 
end,  a  sand  core  should  do  when  the  hanging  of  the  top  half  of 
the  core  is  not  necessary.  The  sand  suitable  for  jacket  cores 
will  be  found  in  "core  sands,"  and,  if  made  in  loam,  that 
which  is  mixed  for  "  pistons  "  will  suit  these  cores  also.  The 
vents  must  be  brought  right  up  through  the  top  when  cast 
vertically,  and  should  be  made  by  bedding  |-in.  round  iron 
rods  at  suitable  "divides."  The  loam  should  be  tucked  round 
the  core  iron  in  the  box,  and  each  core  should  be  provided 
with  a  tube  rigidly  fixed  to  the  core  iron,  hard  up  against  the 
end  of  the  core  box,  so  that  the  plug  cores,  which  are  made 
with  a  tin  tube  in  their  centres,  and  projecting  about  an  inch 
beyond  the  end  of  the  core,  telescope  firmly  into  those  of  the 
jacket  core  just  mentioned.  The  plug  cores  in  the  flanges 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  come  in  between  the  bolt  holes  of  the 
flanges,  and  thus  avoid  confusion  and  the  possible  wastage  of 
the  flanges,  which  would  mean  the  loss  of  the  casting. 

(2)  Jacket  Cores  in  Loam  Moulding. — The  difficulties  and 
dangers  connected  with  the  making  and  manipulating  of 
jacket  cylinder  cores  in  loam  moulding  are,  of  course,  very  great, 
and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  takes  a  clever  loam 
moulder  with  some  engineering  capacity  to  undertake  success- 
fully the  carrying  out  of  all  the  details  in  making  these  cores, 
and,  before  all  could  be  fully  explained,  many  more  figures 
than  the  one  employed,  namely,  Fig.  72,  would  be  required  to" 
illustrate  the  modus  operandi  in  full.  Obviously  this  cannot  be 
done,  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  instructions  given  in  Fig.  72 
will  suffice  for  those  who  may  be  specially  interested. 

Although  the  various  methods  of  engineering  these  cores 
might  be  given,  we  shall  only  take  the  one  thought  best,  no 
matter  from  what  standpoint  it  be  taken,  and  for  that  purpose 
let  us  keep  in  view  Fig.  72  for  our  object  lesson.  This  figure 
represents  a  jacket  core  in  sectional  elevation,  with  dimen- 
sions 6  ft.  by  3  ft.  by  2^-  ins.  thick ;  and  it  may  be  said  in 


12S 


FACTS   ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


passing  that  the  materials  and  workmanship,  and  all  pertain- 
ing thereto,  will  answer  equally  well  for  cylinder  jacket  cores 
of  larger  or  smaller  diameters. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  building  of  jacket  cores  requires 
a  special  loam  brick,  made  of  porous  river-sand  loam.     These 


FIG.  72. 

bricks  should  measure  about  3  ins.  by  2£  ins.  by  2  ins.,  and 
should  have  a  small  groove  on  one  or  both  sides  to  admit  the 
small  hay  rope  which  is  inserted  round  every  alternate  course 
of  loam  brick  during  the  operation  of  building  these  jacket 
cores.  It  must  also  be  distinctly  understood  that  these  small 
hay  rope  vents  in  every  second  course  must  have  their  ends 
inserted  right  into  the  holes  of  the  vent  tubes  prepared  for 
them,  as  shown  at  Fig.  72. 


JACKETED   CYLINDERS  129 

In  the  building  of  jacket  cylinders  in  loam  there  should  be 
a  circle  plate  about  6  ins.  or  8  ins.  broad,  with  holes  cast  in  it 
all  round  "  between  the  bolt  holes  of  the  flanges "  of  the 
casting.  These  holes  are  for  the  vent  tubes  (Fig.  72),  which  are 
screwed  at  both  ends  of  the  jacket  core  for  binding  purposes,  as 
seen  at  Fig.  72,  and  the  circle  plate  B  of  the  same  figure 
should  be  placed  7  ins.  or  8  ins.  from  the  bottom  of  the  mould, 
thus  leaving  the  brick  in  immediate  touch  with  the  base  or 
bottom  plate,  and  so  give  abundance  of  clearance  to  work  the 
bottom  nut,  which  secures  the  vent  tubes  to  the  circle  plate  B. 
The  tubes  in  question  serve  the  double  purpose  of  core-iron 
standards,  and  vents,  the  ends  of  which  pass  up  through  holes 
cast  in  the  top  plate  of  the  mould  (not  shown)  for  their  recep- 
tion, so  that  the  projecting  ends  of  the  tubes  as  seen  are 
shown  to  fit  into  whatever  purpose  of  safety  may  be  adopted 
at  the  time  of  casting. 

The  number  of  tubes  in  a  jacket  core  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  circumstances,  but  to  cast  a  hole  on  the  bottom 
plate  B  (Fig.  72)  for  every  second  bolt  in  the  flange  of  the 
cylinder  casting,  is  good  and  safe  practice,  for,  no  matter  how 
many  holes  we  may  use  for  tubes,  such  perforation  as  these 
holes  form  on  the  plate  is  all  the  better  for  venting  purposes 
on  the  face  of  the  mould.  Besides,  with  so  many  holes,  that 
in  no  case  can  do  harm,  we  can  scarcely  be  at  a  loss  when 
arranging  the  tubes  previously  to  building  the  core.  In 
passing  tubes  through  the  plate  for  bolting,  these  tubes  must 
have  a  double  nut — that  is  to  say,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
plate  B.  This  arrangement  of  double  nuts  makes  the  tubes 
in  question  an  absolute  fixture,  consequently  no  danger  need 
be  apprehended  as  to  their  shifting  up  or  down.  The  distance 
of  these  tubes  may  vary  from  12  ins.  to  20  ins.  on  the 
circle  of  the  core,  and  their  distribution  and  number  depends 
on  the  diameter  of  the  respective  cores.  With  the  vent  tubes 
which  compose  the  standards  of  the  core  iron,  rings  D 
(Fig.  72)  cast  |  in.  thick  and  J  in.  a  side  less  than  the  thick- 
ness of  the  core  should  be  interspersed  at  a  distance  of  every 
6  ins.  or  8  ins.  while  building  the  core  in  the  vertical  position. 
A  pattern  should  be  made  for  these  rings,  and  holes  cast  in 
them  suitable  for  the  tubes  to  pass  freely  through  in  the  process 

F.P.  K 


130  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

of  building  the  core ;  and  other  small  holes,  over  and  above 
the  tube  holes,  will  be  an  advantage  in  the  way  of  venting 
the  core. 

Thus  far  we  have  dealt  with  venting,  and  some  of  the 
materials  requisite  for  making  a  vertical  loam  cylinder  mould, 
but  especially  as  it  refers  to  the  making  of  a  jacket  core  for  it. 
Having  accomplished  this  briefly,  it  only  remains  to  be  said 
that  jacket  cylinder  cores  in  loam  moulding  are  all  made  from 
bosses,  as  shown  at  F,  Fig.  72.  These  bosses  are  built  with 
black  loam  and  brick  on  the  base  plate  of  their  respective  jobs, 
as  seen  at  A ,  Fig.  72,  and  are  finished  off  with  black  loam,  which 
soon  stiffens,  thus  finishing  the  boss  for  its  work  of  making  the 
core. 

The  tubes  being  fixed  as  suggested,  and  the  face  of  the 
mould  being  prepared  for  placing  the  pieces  of  wood  C  all 
round,  which  form  the  thickness  of  the  flange,  and  the 
temporary  flange  being  placed,  we  now  proceed  to  build  the 
core.  By  referring  to  Fig.  72  it  will  be  observed  that  the 
first  thing  to  be  done  here  is  to  bed  on  the  prodded  ring  D  I, 
and  have  it  tucked  up  with  loam  as  shown.  This,  being  the  base 
or  foundation  of  the  core,  must  be  done  in  good  workmanlike 
fashion,  and  thereafter  proceed  with  the  structure  as  mentioned, 
and  illustrated  in  the  figure.  Special  care  must  be  taken  when 
placing  the  last  ring  D  2,  with  its  prods  uppermost,  that 
these  prods  are  kept  about  J  in.  clear  of  the  loam  board. 
Having  satisfied  ourselves  that  the  prods  are  clear  of  the  loam 
board,  this  plate,  or  ring,  is  bound  with  the  nuts  E,  made  for 
the  tubes,  as  previously  mentioned  ;  and  with  the  vents  secured 
on  this  uppermost  part  of  the  core,  the  whole  core  is  trimmed, 
roughed,  and  finished  off  with  sieved  loam  according  to  loam 
core  practice. 

Thus  the  core  stands  completed  according  to  sizes  wanted, 
and  is  allowed  time  to  stiffen  before  the  boss  F  can  be  taken 
down  for  finishing.  In  due  time  the  boss  is  removed,  together 
with  the  wood  C  or  temporary  flange  pattern  on  the  bottom, 
which  is  in  pieces,  and  when  all  is  finished,  core  and  bottom 
part  of  the  mould,  which  has  now  become  as  one  combined 
structure,  is  passed  into  the  stove  for  drying.  And  here  we 
leave  what  is  considered  the  best  and  safest  method  of 


JACKETED   CYLINDERS  131 

handling  a  jacket  cylinder  core,  when  moulding  these  castings 
in  loam.  Jacket  cylinders,  whether  large  or  small,  should, 
whenever  possible,  be  made  in  loam.  Dry-sand  is  not 
advisable  wherever  loam  is  possible. 

Gas  Engine  Cylinder  Jacket  Cores. — This  core  in  our  experi- 
ence has  proved  the  safest  of  the  kind  made  in  sand,  and 
anything  up  to  30  horse-power  has  always  been  considered 
good  practice  in  sand ;  beyond  this  size  it  is  safer  to  have  a 
loam  core.  One  good  feature  of  these  jacket  cores  comes  from 
the  openness  at  one  or  both  ends  of  the  barrel,  which  (1) 
makes  venting  comparatively  easy ;  (2)  fettling  still  easier ; 
and  (3)  gives  abundance  of  "  bearing  "  wherewith  to  rest  those 
cores — three  very  essential  functions  that  the  gas  engine 
cylinder  jacket  core  provides  by  the  nature  of  its  design,  but  are 
almost,  if  not  altogether,  denied  the  steam  jacket  cylinder  core 
just  referred  to.  Hence  the  need  for  the  plug  cores  and  other 
devices  in  casting  steam  jacketed  cylinders. 

There  is  still  here  one  other  very  important  point  of  con- 
trast, namely,  expansion  of  core,  which  takes  place  immediately 
after  the  mould  is  cast.  With  the  first  jacket  core  considered, 
it  was  referred  to  as  being  entirely  enshrouded  in  metal. 
Now,  with  such  a  core,  it  will  at  once  be  admitted  that  its 
expansion  is  inevitable,  and  to  this  much  of  the  defectiveness 
common  to  steam  jacketed  cylinders,  on  the  top  ends,  is  doubt- 
less due-  Not  only  do  we  get  the  swell  on  the  basins  visible 
after  pouring,  but  the  expansion  also  from  the  core  while  the 
metal  is  in  the  plastic  state,  which  is  without  doubt  contribu- 
tory to  the  mischief  done,  namely,  shrinkholes  and  want  of 
density  common  to  the  top  ends  of  those  castings.  This  evil 
has  more  than  added  its  quota  of  those  castings  consigned  to 
the  scrap  heap,  which  otherwise  should  have  been  good  cast- 
ings. If  engineers  could,  or  would,  have  designed  for  the  open 
end  in  the  steam  cylinder  jacketed  core,  as  is  generally  the  case 
with  the  gas  engine  cylinder,  very  much  of  the  heavy  losses 
hitherto  experienced  in  steam  cylinder  jacketed  castings  would 
have  been  averted.  But  just  because  of  the  losses  referred  to, 
the  cylinder  "liner"  was  introduced,  a  change  which  has 
given  so  much  satisfaction  to  all  concerned,  and  for  which  the 
founder  is  doubly  thankful. 

K  2 


132  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

But  let  us  keep  to  the  gas  engine  cylinder  jacket  cores ; 
and  what  has  been  said  thereon  refers  to  sand  moulding  of 
those  cylinders  whose  barrel  is  divided  or  parted,  the  same  as 
a  common  pipe,  therefore  these  jacket  cores  are  divided  longi- 
tudinally in  halves  the  same  way.  These  cores  are  placed  in 
the  mould  on  their  bearings  and,  if  need  be,  supported  by 
chaplets.  No  plug  vent  cores  being  needed,  the  top  half  core 
is  simply  laid  on  the  top  of  its  neighbour  previously  placed  in 
the  bottom  of. the  mould.  The  simplicity  of  this  when  com- 
pared with  the  cores  requiring  "  plug  vents,"  and  the  jacket 
core  hung  to  the  top  as  previously  mentioned  in  sand  mould- 
ing, requires  no  further  comment  to  show  its  advantages,  and 
as  a  result  jacket  cylinders  for  gas  engines  become  a  pleasanter 
job  to  a  moulder,  because  of  the  comparatively  greater  safety 
experienced  in  making  them. 

Core  Sands,  Core  Irons,  and  Cores.  —  Sands  suitable  for 
these  cores  are  usually  made  from  rock-sand,  loam,  and  milled 
dry-sand  facing  sand.  Some  have  a  strong  inclination  for 
horse  dung  loam,  and  believe  it  to  be  an  indispensable  con- 
stituent of  core  sand,  but  in  no  case  do  we  recognise  this 
dirty  practice.1  Fifteen  per  cent,  of  sawdust  to  whatever 
quantity  of  sand  mixed  will  take  the  place  of  this  obnoxious 
commodity.  It  would  be  gratifying  to  think  that  this  use  of 
horse  dung  was  a  thing  of  the  past,  but  it  is  not  so,  as  this 
manure  account  in  many  up-to-date  foundries  still  forms  an 
item  of  considerable  cost.  Eiver-sand  loam  is  chosen  by 
some  for  its  porous  and  plastic  qualities.  This  is  not  neces- 
sary, as  the  sawdust  imparts  the  first  quality  and  may  even 
overdo  it ;  but  for  safety  in  this,  a  handful  of  core  gum  to 
half  a  barrowful  of  sand  of  the  grade  mentioned  will  make 
the  core  when  baked,  quite  sufficiently  strong  for  handling 
and  perfectly  safe  for  casting  also.  If  flour  be  used  instead  of 
gum,  multiply  the  quantity  by  three.  This  mixture  of  core 
sand  is  very  easily  fettled,  doubtless  due  to  the  destruction  of 
the  sawdust  by  the  red  hot  casting. 

Core  Irons. — These  jacket  sand  cores  in  halves  when  made 
by  a  good  core-maker  are  quite  safe  with  straight  irons  placed 

1  Of  course,  moulders  are  usually  men  of  many  shifts,  and  if  horse 
manure  is  easier  got  than  sawdust,  use  it. 


JACKETED   CYLINDERS  133 

at  suitable  distances  longitudinally  in  the  core-box;  other 
circular  cast  irons  f$  in.  by  1  in.  or  1J  ins.  may  be  placed 
transversely  at  suitable  distances  from  end  to  end  of  the  core- 
box.  These  irons  as  stated  will  do  all  that  is  required  to 
make  a  throughly  good  and  strong  core.  Indeed,  while  coring 
the  job  with  such  core  irons  for  these  jacket  cylinder  cores, 
no  fear  of  breakage  need  be  apprehended  by  taking  hold  of 
them  anywhere  with  ordinary  caution  while  in  the  act  of 
placing  them  in  the  mould  in  their  respective  positions.  This 
again  shows  the  simplicity  and  convenience  of  the  gas  cylinder 
jacket,  when  compared  with  the  steam  cylinder  jacket  core. 

Jacketed  Cylinder  Cores  for  Petrol  Engines. — The  petrol 
engine,  the  latest  invention  requiring  a  cylinder  jacket  core, 
has  put  many  good  moulders  into  difficult  and  unenviable 
positions  at  times,  by  losses  with  these  cylinder  castings  which 
have  been  occasionally  computed  at  as  high  as  75  per  cent. 
The  comparatively  few  years'  experience  in  the  internal  com- 
bustion engine  trade  has  shown  many  difficulties  in  core 
making  which,  at  the  initial  stage  of  its  existence,  seemed 
insurmountable,  through  the  delicacy  of  manipulating  the 
jacket  cylinder  cores.  But  time  has  proved  all  this  trouble  to 
be  a  lack  of  experience,  as  we  have  abundance  of  evidence  to 
prove  that  wherever  introduced,  and  after  the  elementary 
details  were  mastered,  the  trouble  of  "blow  ups  "  and  blow- 
holes in  those  cylinder  castings  in  a  very  great  measure 
disappeared,  and  ultimately  no  unusual  difficulties  were 
experienced  in  their  production. 

The  great  question  with  the  majority  was  the  compounding 
of  the  core  sand  used  ;  at  least  such  seemed  to  be  the  popular 
belief.  Now,  however  much  value  may  be  put  on  this  question 
of  sand,  we  are  afraid  it  is  too  frequently  over-estimated,  and 
this  has  been  the  same  throughout  all  our  experience  of  core 
making  difficulties.  Back  in  the  early  seventies  when  the  gas 
engine  was  in  its  infancy  and  probably  before  the  petrol 
engine  had  an  existence,  the  casting  of  small  steam  cylinders 
with  their  tiny  steam  ports  about  J  in.  or  f  in.  thick  was 
always  matter  for  much  concern.  In  the  mixing  of  core  sands 
for  this  class  of  work  it  was  in  most  cases  a  "  fanciful  com- 
pound "  of  one  ingredient  killing,  another ;  these  in  some 


134  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDBY  PEACTICE 

cases  counted  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  different  constituents 
of  one  kind  and  another.  In  this  connection  one  would  almost 
think  in  the  motor  cylinder  castings  trade  that  history  had 
repeated  itself  with  more  intense  ridiculousness  in  some  of  these 
fancy  core  sand  mixtures.  In  proof  of  this  we  give  an  up-to- 
date  recipe  thus  : — "  Two  handfuls  of  gritty  dust  from  near  the 
roof  spouting,  two-and-a-half  shovels  of  red  sand,  two  shovels  of 
black  sand,  and  half  teacupful  of  core  gum."  This  is  copied  to 
prove  our  contention,  but  hardly  calls  for  further  comment. 

Having  so  far  explained  the  true  value  of  things  in  this 
respect  to  a  moulder,  and  which  is  borne  out  by  experience, 
advisedly  we  say,  a  great  deal  more  depends  on  the  moulder 
than  the  sand.  A  good  moulder  or  core-maker  will  find  his 
sand  and  make  it  suitable,  but  the  sand  will  not  make  the 
moulder  suitable  to  the  sand.  With  the  former  many  of  the 
fancy  mixtures  disappear,  and  with  the  latter  they  usually 
multiply.  There  is  no  need  for  any  recipe  here  further  than 
to  say  that,  what  makes  a  good  cylinder  "  steam  port  core," 
will  also  make  good  "  petrol  engine  cores,"  and  if  there  be 
difference  at  all,  it  need  only  be  in  the  grade,  the  former  being 
passed  through  a  J-in.  or  f -in.  mesh,  the  latter  through  •£$  in. 
or  J  in.  for  the  jacketed  portion  of  the  cores. 

Core  irons  for  motor  cylinder  jackets  are  usually  made 
from  ^  in.  thick  iron  for  the  longitudinal  lengths,  and  for 
transverse  •£§  in.  thick  will  do.  In  some  cases  after  fitting  the 
core  iron  it  may  be  necessary  to  solder  it  at  different  parts  so 
as  to  have  a  strong  and  efficient  core  iron,  but  in  other  cases 
all  that  is  necessary  is  simply  to  place  the  core  irons  with  care, 
as  illustrated  by  the  jacket  cores  of  the  gas  engine  cylinders. 
Wax  vent  wire  may  be  said  to  be  indispensable  for  venting 
purposes ;  but  above  all,  make  vents  good  and  clear,  and  do 
not  apply  ashes  at  all.  Avoid  letting  the  core  become  con- 
taminated with  wax  from  the  vent  wire,  and  blackwash  the 
cores  green. 

In  the  three  types  of  jacket  cores  dealt  with  it  will  be 
obvious  that  the  progression  as  represented  in  this  class  of 
work  has  been  stepwise : — (1)  the  large  jackets  of  the  steam 
cylinders  ;  (2)  the  medium  of  the  gas  engines ;  and,  (3)  the 
small  jacket  core  of  the  petrol  cylinder,  that  has  come  into 


CORE-SANDS  135 

such  prominence  in  foundry  work  during  the  last  few  years, 
and  according  to  some  has  done  more  than  anything  else  to 
develop  the  highest  degree  of  skill,  and  accuracy  in  foundry 
practice.  The  relationship  between  the  jacket  cores  of  the 
loam  made  cylinders  and  similar  cores  of  the  gas  engine  is 
considerable,  and  although  the  principle  is  much  the  same  in 
practice,  still  in  certain  respects  they  are  quite  different. 
But  again,  when  comparison  is  made  between  the  smaller 
sizes  of  the  gas  engine  and  the  larger  sizes  of  the  petrol 
engine,  a  much  nearer  relationship  is  found  to  exist,  thus 
bringing  the  moulder  who  has  experience  in  gas  engine 
cylinder  casting  in  close  touch  with  petrol  cylinder  practice. 
The  materials  and  methods  in  the  making  of  those  two 
jacket  cores  have  much  in  common  with  each  other.  There- 
fore, the  gas  engine  jacket  cylinder  ought  to  be  a  good 
stepping-stone  to  the  moulding  of  a  somewhat  similar  class  of 
cylinder  castings  for  the  motor  castings  trade. 

COEE-SANDS 

In  the  matter  of  core-sand  some  moulders  have  great 
faith  in  strange  nostrums,  and  the  various  antidotes 
applied  for  real  or  imaginary  evils  have  at  times  been  amus- 
ing. And  just  one  case  in  point.  In  my  early  experience, 
and  while  working  in  a  certain  shop,  I  saw  a  small  steam 
cylinder  moulded,  which  was  lost  three  consecutive  times, 
the  loss  in  each  case  being  attributed  to  the  cores.  In 
the  making  of  the  fourth  set  of  cores  the  moulder  resorted  to 
the  compounding  of  potatoes  with  sea  sand  to  the  necessary 
consistency.  These  cores  were  handled  without  blackwashing, 
stood  the  test  of  the  metal  well  while  pouring,  and  resulted  in 
a  good  casting  for  all  concerned.  Needless  to  say,  all  the 
credit  for  the  good  result  was  given  to  this  special  mixture, 
which,  by  the  way,  was  known  to  others  in  the  shop  long 
before  this  incident  occurred.  Moreover,  cylinders  from 
the  same  pattern  had  been  cast  many  times  successfully 
with  ordinary  core- sand.  Hence,  the  fault  in  this  case  was 
entirely  due  to  the  man  working  his  sand  too  damp,  and 
ramming  his  cores  so  hard  that  their  easy  venting  was 
an  impossibility — a  clear  case  of  the  importance  of  proper 


136  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTICE 

core-sand  consistency  and  the  necessity  for  intelligent  ramming. 
But  potatoes  as  a  binder  in  the  manner  mentioned  may  be 
used  to  advantage  in  the  smallest  of  cores  where  the  placing 
of  a  vent  is  an  impossibility,  provided  that  the  drying  or 
baking  of  such  be  attended  to  with  more  than  ordinary  care. 
There  is  no  need  to  enumerate  further  the  various  antidotes 
which  have  hitherto  been  in  use  in  British  core  making. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  these  to  a  very  great  extent,  and  in  some 
cases  altogether,  have  been  superseded  by  that  handier 
commodity  known  as  core-gum. 

Core-Sands  for  Large,  Medium,  and  Small  Cores. — (1)  The 
term  "  large  "  is  ambiguous,  as  in  this  connection  we  would  do 
well  to  consider  it  as  relating  to  internal  form  only.  Certain 
parts  of  moulds,  although  internal  and  surrounded  on  the 
four  sides  with  metal,  as  is  the  case  with  the  legs  of  horizontal 
engine  bedplates  and  bottoms,  which  are  usually  lifted  out 
to  make  room  for  firing  (when  cast  in  dry-sand)r  have  much 
in  common  with  other  large  cores,  but  cannot  be  regarded  as 
such,  because  these  give  the  outside  form  of  the  casting  only. 
Therefore,  although  a  core-sand  would  be  serviceable  and 
safer  in  facilitating  shrinkage,  yet  it  would  be  altogether  out 
of  place  here,  as  a  facing  sand  capable  of  producing  a  properly 
skinned  casting  would  be  best. 

For  large  cores  ordinary  dry-sand  facing  often  suits,  but 
it  certainly  is  all  the  better  if  the  batch  contains  about 
15  per  cent,  of  sawdust,  an  article  within  the  reach  of  most 
people.  Of  course,  sawdust  cannot  be  used  without  lessening 
the  cohesiveness  of  the  sand  ;  hence  the  need  at  times  for  the 
moulder  to  adopt  some  sort  of  a  binder  to  stiffen  the  other- 
wise impoverished  sand.  Sawdust,  as  referred  to,  has  three 
very  distinct  qualities.  First,  it  is  regarded  as  a  very 
important  essential  to  the  speedy  venting  of  cores ;  second, 
it  is  not  rigid,  but  yields  easily  to  shrinkage  when  enshrouded 
in  metal;  and  third,  its  very  destructible  nature,  owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  it  carries,  makes 
it  easy  for  fettling — a  very  commendable  feature  with  all  cores, 
but  specially  with  those  that  are  enshrouded  in  metal.  This 
mixture  is  as  good  if  manipulated  with  intelligence,  as  the 
best  horse  manure  ever  applied  to  the  mixing  of  core-sand, 


COKE-SANDS  137 

and  gets  rid  of  this  obnoxious  compound  which  so  many 
moulders  believe  to  be  the  ideal  core-sand  mixture. 

Medium  Cores. — In  this  class  we  propose  to  regard  these 
as  belonging  to  locomotive  cylinders  and  others  of  the  different 
types  for  land  and  marine  engine  core  work.  But  even  here 
we  feel  that  each  job,  large  or  small,  has  more  or  less  its  own 
individual  requirements.  A  good  base  to  begin  with,  in 
mixing  a  batch  of  core-sand  for  this  class  of  work,  is  to  take 
two  of  good  milled  dry-sand  facing  sand  made  from  loam 
offal,  to  one  of  rock-sand,  but  if  the  rock-sand  be  not  quite 
so  refractory,  gritty,  and  plastic  as  we  would  like  it  to  be,  then 
the  proportions  of  rock-sand  must  be  increased,  and  the  milled 
sand  decreased  proportionately,  plus  15  per  cent,  sawdust. 

In  the  mixing  of  this  sand,  some  moulders  could  not  do,  as 
they  think,  without  preparing  it  with  clay  water,  and  in  most 
cases  would  have  to  apply  a  percentage  of  loam  also.  Well, 
here  we  cannot  put  down  a  hard  and  fast  line,  as  it  is  to  a 
certain  extent  a  matter  of  opinion,  but  nine  cases  out  of  every 
ten,  in  our  experience,  could  do  without  either.  Clay  is  an 
adjunct  indispensable  to  core-sand,  but  its  indiscriminate  use 
is  destructive  to  cores,  and  a  core  carrying  too  much  of  this 
material  in  the  sand  with  which  it  is  made,  if  not  much  burned 
while  drying,  will  undoubtedly  prove  itself  to  be  troublesome 
while  casting. 

The  one  grand  feature  of  core-sand,  along  with  porosity,  is 
its  proper  consistency,  as  regards  dampness  and  cohesiveness, 
and  the  best  guide  we  know  of  in  this  matter  is  its  behaviour 
in  the  core-box.  If  it  is  too  damp,  it  will  have  a  tendency  to 
clog,  and  if  it  sticks  to  the  box,  as  previously  stated,  then  we  may 
be  sure  we  are  working  a  dense  and  dangerous  sand.  Dense- 
ness  is  usually  associated  with  excessive  clay ;  thus  it  is  that 
comparative  weights  of  some  sands  are,  bulk  for  bulk,  as  six 
is  to  seven.  The  latter  had  better  be  kept  for  cores  having 
at  least  one  side  entirely  free  from  metal  contact  while  pouring, 
and  the  former  used  for  cores  that  are  enshrouded  or  immersed 
in  metal,  as  is  the  case  with  pistons  and  cylinder  cores  in 
general. 

Next  in  importance  to  suitable  sand  for  medium  cores  is  the 
core  ramming,  and  this  is  where  much  mischief  is  done.  A 


138  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

sand  that  is  too  wet  will  always  pack  closer  with  greater  ease 
while  ramming  cores  in  general  than  is  possible  with  sand 
that  is  drier.  Too  hard  ramming  makes  dense  and  hard  cores 
that  are  bad  from  any  point  of  view.  Experience  alone  can 
determine  absolutely  what  is  wanted  to  make  cores  of  this 
class,  and  for  the  mixing  and  manipulating  of  the  sands 
proper  for  medium  cores  we  fall  back  on  two  of  milled-sand 
to  one  of  rock,  and  15  per  cent,  sawdust,  as  a  rule,  will  suit 
for  all  sizes.  .These,  if  thoroughly  mixed  and  tramped  with 
the  feet  (milling  is  not  good  here),  and  allowed  to  lie  some 
time  before  riddling  for  use,  will  make  a  first-class  medium 
core-sand  capable  of  resisting  chapleting,  giving  good  venting 
and  also  expeditious  fettling. 

Small  Cores. — By  this  is  meant  cores  of  the  lighter  order 
connected  with  small  work  and  thin  metal.  They  should  at 
all  times  be  made  with  a  specifically  light  sand,  that  is  to  say, 
a  sand  comparatively  free  from  clayey  matter,  such  as  sea, 
loch,  or  river  sand  in  their  finest  condition.  Core-sand  made 
from  any  of  those  sands  with  the  requisite  material  for  binding 
makes  cores  that  are  easily  vented  and  easily  fettled.  It  is, 
however,  in  this  class  of  cores  that  the  greatest  amount  of 
quackery  is  practised.  Beer,  porter,  molasses,  salt  water,  etc., 
were  common  many  years  ago  in  mixing  sand  for  light  section 
cores.  Sands  that  are  heavy  and  plastic  are  non-porous,  and 
are  entirely  unsuitable  for  light  work,  as  they  contain  too 
much  gas-producing  substances  which  render  them  at  all 
times  dangerous  in  the  production  of  light  and  good  castings. 
But  if  circumstances  compel  one  to  use  a  heavier  sand  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case,  much  good  will  result  from 
burning  the  cores  while  drying,  but  only  to  such  an  extent  as 
partly  to  destroy  the  vegetable  matter  that  is  in  the  sand  of 
which  the  cores  are  made.  Indeed,  all  cores  that  are  made 
with  a  heavy  sand,  such  as  the  ones  referred  to  in  medium 
cores,  are  all  the  better  for  being  tinged  by  the  fire  in  the 
process  of  drying.  This  will  improve  them  in  every  respect, 
but  especially  in  venting  and  fettling,  and  of  course  black- 
washing  must  follow  this  method  of  drying. 

The  following  is  a  recipe  for  small  cores  :  20  measures  of 
sea  sand,  and  8  measures  of  black  sand,  to  which  1  of  core  gum 


MOULDING  A  CORLISS   CYLINDER  IN  DRY-SAND       139 

is  added.  This  will  make  a  suitable  sand  for  general  light 
work.  Of  course  this  mixture  can  be  varied  according  to  cir- 
cumstances, and  cores  made  from  it  should  be  kept  out  of  the 
mould,  especially  if  it  be  a  green-sand  one,  as  long  as 
possible  preparatory  to  casting,  as  dampness  soon  develops 
and  makes  them  bad  for  casting.  Flour  is  better  than  core 
gum  for  this  mixture,  but  is  too  costly  for  British  foundry 
practice. 

Then  again,  a  very  suitable  core-sand  for  the  lightest  and 
most  intricate  of  small  cores  is  made  by  compounding 
potatoes  with  sea  sand  to  a  consistency  of  ordinary  core- 
sand.  If  the  sand  be  entirely  dry,  add  potatoes  until  the 
desired  consistency,  by  kneading,  is  brought  about,  thus 
completing  the  mixture  for  use.  No  vents,  as  a  rule,  with  this 
potato  mixture  are  necessary  in  the  smallest  of  cylinder  cores. 

MOULDING  A  CORLISS   CYLINDER  IN  DRY-SAND. 

So  much  has  already  been  said  on  cylinders  moulded  in 
loam  and  sand  that  it  would  not  be  wise  to  spend  time  on  the 
preliminaries  of  moulding  Corliss  cylinders,  since  the  methods 
described  for  slide  valve  cylinder  moulding  will  adapt  them- 
selves to  Corliss  work  as  well.  It  will  be  sufficient,  therefore, 
to  treat  only  of  the  fundamentals  of  coring,  closing,  and  the 
necessary  essentials  for  working  out  these  jobs  on  the  lines  of 
good  foundry  practice.  To  describe  in  detail  and  fully  illus- 
trate the  moulding  of  this  job  would,  it  will  readily  be  admitted, 
alone  fill  a  fair  sized  book,  but  it  is  hoped  that  enough  will 
be  given  to  guide  even  the  novice  in  how  to  proceed  with  the 
moulding  of  Corliss  cylinder  castings. 

And  let  it  be  said  that  whatever  difference  there  may  be  in 
making  a  "Corliss  cylinder  in  loam"  when  compared  with 
moulding  the  same  type  in  dry-sand,  this  difference  is  accen- 
tuated more  forcibly  in  the  cores  ;  and  the  dry-sand  mould  of 
this  class  of  work  is  usually  moulded  and  cast  horizontally, 
while  that  in  loam  practice  is  cast  vertically.  Now,  without 
seeking  to  discuss  whether  there  be  more  ways  than  one  for 
moulding  these  in  loam,  or  even  dry-sand,  and  the  various 
methods  of  manipulating  the  valve  cores,  as  will  be  illustrated 


140 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


further  on,  let  us  for  the  present  show  in  as  precise  a  manner 
as  possible  the  different  workshop  practice  of  dealing  with 
the  cores  when  moulding  in  the  position  referred  to.  These 
methods  we  summarise  as  follows : — (1)  "  The  three-core 
method,"  (2)  "the  five-core  method,"  and  (3)  "the  seven-core 
method."  These  three  divisions  in  a  somewhat  summarised 
form  will  show  precisely  the  various  methods  of  moulding 


FIG.  73. 

Corliss  cylinders  in  dry-sand.  It  must  be  distinctly  under- 
stood that  the  figures  used  to  illustrate  Corliss  cylinder  mould- 
ing here,  although  drawn  to  a  scale,  are  only  to  be  interpreted 
as  they  apply  to  this  subject ;  but  the  principles  involved  and 
enunciated  here  in  moulding  these  castings,  will  apply  them- 
selves with  general  usefulness  wheresoever  Corliss  cylinder 
founding  is  practised. 

The  "  three-core  method  "  of  moulding  a  Corliss  cylinder 
(Figs.  73  and  74)  shows  the  joint  to  be  that  of  a  common 
cylinder  cut  through  the  middle  of  the  barrel  and  moulded  on 
the  principle  of  an  ordinary  pipe,  as  most  moulders  would  say. 
But  this  is  only  true  within  certain  conditions  of  coring  the 
job,  and  it  is  these  conditions  which  determine  the  modus 


MOULDING  A  CORLISS  CYLINDBE  IN  DRY-SAND       141 


.Rise 


operandi  of  moulding — that  is  to  say,  whether  it  shall  be  as 
plain  as  a  pipe,  or  whether  there  shall  be  employed  the  "  cheek," 
or  drawback,  as  seen  at  Figs.  73  and  74.  The  most  common, 
but  perhaps  not  the  best,  way  of  moulding  these  cylinders  in 
dry-sand  is  to  do  without  the  "  drawback,"  as  seen  at  Fig.  73. 
But  in  order  to  expedite  matters  and  give  a  superior  job,  the 
"  drawback  "  referred  to  is  imperative,  because  of  the  great 
convenience  it  affords  while  coring  the  job,  as  will  be  referred 
to  further  on.  The  "drawback's  "  specific  purpose  is  to  give 
ample  room  for  placing  the  cores  in  the  mould,  as  will  be 
seen  by  a  look  at  the 
figure  referred  to. 

In  studying  the 
details  of  this  job, 
the  best  thing  one 
can  do  is  to  seek  to 
comprehend  in  full 
Fig.  74,  which  is  a 
sectional  end  eleva- 
tion of  the  mould, 
closed  with  its  cores 
and  in  general  com- 
pleteness. A  view  of 
this  figure  as  it  stands 
at  once  suggests  the  difficulties  of  getting  these  cores  into  their 
positions  because  of  the  extraordinary  circumference  of  their 
"  clip  "  and  bearings,  or  port  mouths,  of  the  valve  cores  that 
are  seen  to  be  lying  close  against  the  barrel  cores  (Fig.  74). 

In  the  sectional  elevation  of  Fig.  74  three  cores  are  repre- 
sented as  counting  1,  2,  3,  from  left  to  right,  and  let  it  be 
clearly  understood  that  this  method  of  moulding  is  only 
possible  with  the  aid  of  the  "  drawback."  Now,  as  has  been 
said,  the  greatest  difficulty  with  this  job  is  that  of  getting  the 
cores  placed  safely  in  their  respective  positions  in  the  mould  ; 
therefore  study  well  Fig.  74. 

Assuming  the  cores  to  be  all  ready,  the  job  is  cored  in  the 
order  represented  in  Fig.  74,  and  it  is  also  necessary  to 
explain  that,  before  "  coring  "  for  good,  the  moulding  boxes 
top  and  bottom  (Fig.  74)  should  be  tried  on  and  proved  correct 


FIG.  74. 


142  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

in  every  detail  that  goes  to  make  a  true  joint  on  the  casting, 
as  also  the  measurement  of  bearings,  so  that  a  true  divide 
of  metal,  as  it  affects  uniformity  of  thickness  in  the  barrel,  or 
otherwise,  may  be  secured.  This  being  done  satisfactorily,  and 
the  top  part  taken  off  and  laid  aside,  along  with  the  "drawback," 
which  is  taken  out  for  the  convenience  of  "  coring,"  we  begin 
to  core  in  the  order  as  illustrated  at  the  figure  in  question. 

In  commencing  to  place  these  cores  in  the  mould  we  begin 
with  No.  1  core  (Fig.  74)  and  its  end  neighbour,  not  shown  in 
figure,  and  when  both  valve  cores  are  lowered  and  placed 
exactly  vertical  in  the  required  position  we  next  sling  the  loam 
core,  No.  2,  for  the  barrel.  In  placing  the  barrel  core,  a  little 
extra  caution  will  be  required  so  as  to  keep  it  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  points  of  the  valve  cores  referred  to  at  Fig.  74, 
and  the  mould  thereafter  being  thoroughly  cleaned  out,  the 
"  coring  "  is  completed  by  placing  No.  3  core  and  its  neighbour 
in  the  same  way  as  No.  1  core.  Thereafter  place  the  "  cheek  " 
in  position. 

The  Five-Core  Method. — Being  agreed  that  the  cores  are 
the  dominant  factors  in  moulding  Corliss  cylinders,  Figs.  75 
and  76  represent  two  other  ways  of  manipulating  these  cores 
while  placing  them  in  the  mould.  In  Fig.  75,  A  A  is  a  joint 
which  indicates  that  the  cores  numbered  1  and  3,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  74,  are  cut  longitudinally  for  the  convenience  of  placing 
these  two  cores,  steam  and  exhaust,  in  the  mould  as  shown. 
In  examining  Fig.  75,  the  numbers  1,  2,  4,  5,  and  the  joint 
line  A  A  denote  that  the  steam  and  exhaust  cores,  which 
formerly  were  shown  in  Fig.  74  as  complete,  are  cut  in  the 
"  five-core  method  "  through  the  centre,  as  already  referred  to, 
and  thus  become  four  separate  cores  or-  half  cores. 

The  order  of  coring  in  this  method  is  denoted  by  the  figures 
in  the  illustration  (Fig.  75),  and  if  this  be  attended  to  no 
mistake  or  hitch  of  any  kind  can  happen  during  the  process 
of  coring  the  job.  The  necessity  for  making  five  cores  instead 
of  three  as  in  the  first  method  needs  but  little  explanation,  as 
the  figures  in  themselves  will,  perhaps,  be  conclusive.  How- 
ever, this  method  looks  quite  a  simple  and  convenient  way  of 
handling  those  cores,  and  for  a  moulder's  convenience  of 
placing  them  looks  to  be  all  that  could  be  desired.  Of  course 


MOULDING  A   CORLISS   CYLINDER  IN  DRY-SAND       143 


Joint 


Line 


with  the  five-core  method  there  are  five  cores  to  set  instead  of 
three  (when  viewed  from  end  elevation,  Fig.  74),  which  means 
more  time  in  coring.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  can  be  said 
no  "  drawback  "  is  required  in  this  method  of  moulding  the  job. 
This  being  so,  the  cores  do  not  count  for  so  very  much  after 
all,  were  it  not  that  there  are  other  things  to  be  considered  ; 
but,  from  an  engineer's  point  of  view,  this  method  is  not 
commendable.  Further,  it  is  a  vital  question  in  all  foundry 
practice  to  avoid,  as  far  as  it  is  possible,  encroaching  on,  or 
disturbing,  the  continuity  of  lines  in  valve  faces.  This 
carried  out  as  a  principle  together  with  the  nastiness  of  the 
joints,  whether  in  forming  a  fin  or  otherwise,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  75,  A  A,  makes 
the  five-core  or  longitudi- 
nal splitting  method  of 
moulding  and  coring  Cor- 
liss cylinders  in  general 
foundry  practice  very  un- 
satisfactory. So  much  for 
this  ;  we  pass  on  to  what 
I  have  chosen  to  call  the 
seven-core  method. 

The  Seven-Core  Method. 
— In  this,  the  third  and  last 

method,  let  it  be  remembered  that  all  materials  and  details  are 
the  same  as  in  the  previous  one.  The  position  of  the  arrows 
in  Fig.  76  at  once  show  where  these  cores  (that  is  to  say, 
steam  and  exhaust,  on  both  sides  of  the  barrel)  are  subdivided 
into  three  separate  cores,  and  by  this  process  cores  Nos.  1 
and  3,  of  Fig.  74,  count  for  six  cores  as  against  two  in  the 
three-core  method.  These  six  cores  added  to  the  barrel,  of 
course  constitutes  what  has  already  been  designated  the  seven- 
core  method  of  moulding  Corliss  cylinders. 

Hence  it  may  at  first  sight  hardly  seem  correct  to  say  that 
in  these  three  methods  of  moulding  Corliss  cylinders,  we  have 
three,  then  five,  and  lastly  seven  cores — three  separate  cores 
(Fig.  76),  for  both  sides  of  the  mould  and  the  barrel  core  make 
seven — and  yet  the  result  in  the  end  comes  out  practically 
the  same  with  them  all,  at  least  in  so  far  as  we  view  the  work 


FIG.  75. 


144  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

done,  and  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  74.  Nevertheless,  the  fore- 
going is  too  true,  and  demonstrates  what  is  common  in  foundry 
practice,  and  which  not  infrequently  throws  those  in  charge 
into  a  dilemma  to  know  what  plan  is  best  at  times  to  adopt. 
But  in  this  case,  where  all  things  are  supposed  by  some 
to  be  equal,  the  three-core  method  with  its  "  drawback,"  as 
illustrated  by  Fig.  74,  is  by  far  the  best,  no  matter  from  what 
point  of  view  it  be  tested. 

Again,  "  the  seven-core  method,"  although  many  adopt  it, 
is  really  bad  for  everything.  Each  of  these  cores  must  be 
handled  separately  (i.e.,  in  the  larger  sizes),  and  are  in  every 
way  independent  cores,  which  is  in  principle  opposed  to  the 
economy  which  grouping  of  cores,  wherever  practicable,  pro- 
duces. Grouping  expedites  the  work  of  "  coring,"  and  so  saves 

time  and  money  in  this  or 
any  other  division  of  mould- 
ing. 

This  method  also  creates 
confusion,  inasmuch  as  each 
core  has  to  be  conducted  by 

one  or  more  men  while  placing  the  four  valves  and  main 
cores  in  their  positions.  Such  an  arrangement  as  this  causes 
much  confusion,  as  all  are  naturally  trying  their  best  to  get 
placed  at  one  and  the  same  time  in  their  respective  bearings, 
and  each  man  feels  quite  relieved  when  landed  there  without 
mishap  of  any  kind.  Wherever  confusion  exists  in  the  placing 
of  cores,  mistakes  or  breakages  of  some  kind  are  usually 
inevitable,  and  as  a  result  time  and  money  is  wasted,  with 
inferior  workmanship  as  well. 

At  this  juncture  there  are  now  five  cores  placed  in  the 
mould,  namely,  the  four  valves  and  the  barrel,  which  leave 
the  steam  and  exhaust  chamber  cores  to  be  placed  in  turn. 
These  cores,  illustrated  in  Fig.  76,  are  parted  or  separated  at 
the  points  of  their  respective  "  arrows,"  and  wrought  with  a 
moderate  "fin,"  which  is  allowed  to  go,  and  is  burst  and 
cleaned  by  the  fettler  at  the  time  of  dressing  the  casting.  If 
the  "  fin  "  is  placed  as  shown  at  the  "  arrows,"  all  will  be  well ; 
if  on  the  other  side  next  the  valves,  much  danger  will  follow, 
as  the  bursting  of  the  "  fin  "  may  spoil  the  line  of  finish  in  the 


MOULDING  A  CORLISS   CYLINDER   IN   DRY-SAND      145 

valve  casing,  in  consequence  of  which  much  risk  of  losing  the 
casting  ensues. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  three  methods  of 
moulding  and  casting  horizontally  Corliss  cylinders  that  are 
made  in  dry  sand  may  now  be  summarised.  (1)  Three  cores 
constitute  the  interior  of  the  casting,  which  is  without  any 
"  fins,"  except  the  mouth  of  the  ports  in  the  barrel,  which  are  of 
no  consequence  whatever.  Also  fettling  is  expedited  and  good 
workmanship  secured  by  this  method  in  less  time  than  when 
done  in  any  other  way.  (2)  Five  cores,  or  the  splitting  of  the 
sand  cores  longitudinally  as  suggested,  and  as  seen  in  Fig.  75, 
are  very  agreeably  -and  easily  handled,  but  the  dangers  of 
disturbing  the  vertical  lines  of  the  valves  and  contour  of  the 
mouth  of  the  ports  at  the  barrel  are  great.  These,  together 
with  the  fins  referred  to,  make  it  unsafe  for  good  workman- 
ship when  passing  through  the  iron-finishing  departments. 
(3)  Seven  cores  may  be  said  to  be  bad  for  everything  (unless 
vertical  moulding,  and  in  all  probability  loam),  first,  because 
time  is  wasted  and  abnormal  risk  is  involved  in  making  and 
handling  them  in  every  way,  as  well  as  in  securing  them  in 
the  mould.  In  this  method  also  extra  work  is  involved  in 
venting  seven  cores  instead  of  three  or  five,  and  there  is  the 
objectionable  fin,  as  previously  mentioned,  in  the  position 
shown  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  76. 

Now  that  all  cores  are  supposed  to  be  in  position  (dry- 
sand  horizontal  moulding)  and  as  near  to  what  they  should  be 
as  possible,  much  care  in  checking  them  by  measurement,  to 
see  that  all  have  their  true  centres  in  line  with  the  bottom 
centres  of  the  valves,  is  imperative^  Sometimes  the  valve 
cores  have  been  set  by  rule  of  thumb,  and  to  the  eye  looked 
all  right,  even  on  entering  the  top  prints,1  and  were  cast 
accordingly ;  but  when  they  reached  the  "  drawing-off "  process 
for  finishing  in  the  machine  shop  they  often  proved  themselves 
all  wrong.  Therefore  nothing  short  of  a  systematic  measure- 
ment, as  here  suggested,  can  guarantee  these  valves  as  nearly 
as  possible  centre  to  centre.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  difficulties  of  finding  the  centres  in  the  foundry  are 

1  Or  core  bearings. 
F.P.  L 


146  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

somewhat  greater  than  in  the  other  departments  ;  still, 
this  need  not  be  an  excuse  for  defectiveness  in  the  parts 
referred  to.  What  the  moulder  has  to  do  in  proving  these 
cores  is  very  simple,  and,  indeed,  speedier  than  any  rule  of 
thumb  can  be.  He  has  only  to  get  two  oblong  pieces  of  1-in. 
wood,  whose  combined  measurements  should  be  5  ins.  or  6  ins. 
greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  core,  the  centre  lines  of  the 
barrel  to  be  drawn  on  these,  and  the  diameter  cut  an  easy 
fit  for  riding  the  barrel  core.  This  will  enable  these  two 
saddles,  squared  and  levelled  with  the  faces  of  the  barrel 
flanges,  to  control  all  measurements  endwise.  This  done, 
the  inside  measurements  should  be  taken  from  the  centre 
line  of  a  straight  edge,  resting  true  to  the  centre  lines  of 
the  saddles,  and  assuming  the  pattern  to  be  correct,  and 
cores  made  correctly  from  good  and  true  core- boxes,  no  one 
with  ordinary  care  need  have  the  slightest  fear  in  turn- 
ing out  Corliss  cylinders  with  the  cores  in  their  proper 
places. 

The  foregoing  method  is  not  costly,  and  in  many  cases  has 
paid  for  itself  many  times  over,  not  to  speak  of  the  superior 
job  ensured  and  the  pleasure  it  affords  to  all  interested,  and 
which  of  course  redounds  with  double  credit  to  the  foundry. 
Further,  if  the  future  of  the  foundry  is  to  be  improved 
technically,  I  can  think  of  nothing  the  moulder  has  more 
need  of  than  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  constructional 
parts  of  the  steam  engine,  and  such  parts  of  engineering 
where  much  time  and  money  is  lost  through  cores  badly  set 
by  the  moulder. 

The  importance  of  chemistry  and  metallurgy  to  an  intelligent 
and  practical  foundryman  goes  without  saying,  but  if  these 
be  advanced  to  the  neglect  of  what  has  been  hinted  at  here, 
the  ability  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  good  and 
efficient  workmanship  at  the  least  possible  cost  will  in  a 
considerable  measure  be  lost. 


GENEEAL  PIPE  COEE  MAKING 

The  extent  to  which  this  branch  of  foundry  practice  could 
be  taken  is  practically  without  limit,  as  can  be  seen   by   a 


GENEEAL  PIPE  CORE   MAKING  147 

glance  at  the  many  divisions  of  moulding  and  the  peculiarities 
of  each  division  of  core  making.  To  give  absolute  justice, 
each  core  treated  ought  to  be  taken  in  detail  as  to  methods 
of  making,  composition  of  materials,  and  with  not  less 
than  one  sectional  illustration  showing  its  "  iron,"  vent, 
and  general  texture  ;  and  so  showing  vents  that  are  open  or 
made  of  ashes,  and  demonstrating  in  a  general  way  the 
strength  of  the  core  for  the  purpose  intended  ;  also 
its  porosity,  and  the  speediest  method  possible  for  the 
exit  of  the  gases  of  the  cores  under  consideration  should  be 
dealt  with.  It  will  be  readily  conceded  that  to  treat  this 
subject  in  such  detail  is  beyond  the  possiblities  of  a  text-book 
such  as  this. 

For  example,  take  pipe  foundry  practice,  which  is  altogether 
different  from  what  has  been  previously  dealt  with,  and  what 
do  we  find  ?  In  this  class  of  work  we  have  a  system  of  core 
making  absolutely  unique  inasmuch  as  cores  are  made  here 
with  materials  and  under  conditions  of  foundry  practice  that 
are  unadaptable  to  any  other  branch  of  moulding,  and  at  a 
speed  of  production,  with  its  consequent  reduction  of  cost, 
which  is  nothing  short  of  marvellous  to  the  uninitiated  on 
entering  a  pipe  factory  for  the  first  time,  no  matter  whether 
he  be  layman  or  practical  moulder. 

Green-Sand  Cores. — In  the  jobbing  green- sand  department 
we  find  bends,  tee  pieces,  branch  pipes,  and  all  sorts  of 
"  specials  "  for  the  pipe  trade,  being  cast  with  green-sand 
cores.  Cores  made  thus  are  produced  from  the  patterns  that 
make  the  moulds,  so  that  no  core-boxes,  in  the  usual  sense  of 
the  word,  are  used  in  this  department  of  pipe  founding.  These 
patterns,  technically  known  as  "  shell  patterns,"  in  appearance 
look  like  the  castings  to  be  made  cut  into  halves  for  the  con- 
venience of  core  making  and  moulding. 

The  sand  for  this  class  of  core  is  practically  that  which  is 
used  for  the  mould,  but  instead  of  blackwashing,  as  is  the 
case  for  skinning  a  dry-sand  core,  the  cores  are  well  rubbed 
up  with  dry  blacking,  as  is  common  to  green-sand  practice. 
Venting  is  done  in  the  ordinary  way,  but  with  some  of  the 
larger  diameters  the  open  vent  is  aided  with  suitable  ashes, 
and  judiciously  pricked  with  the  vent  wire  immediately  below 

L  2 


148  FACTS  ON  GENEKAL  FOUNDBY  PEACTICE 

the  "  drop "  and  flow  of  the  metal  from  the  pouring  gates, 
thereby  securing  greater  safety  from  scabbing  at  this  most 
dangerous  part  of  the  casting. 

Core  Irons. — For  this  method  of  core  making  these  must  be 
rigid  and  strong ;  but,  whatever  is  permissible  in  the  way  of 
chapleting,  etc.,  in  dry  sand  or  loam,  the  same  is  absolutely 
inadmissible  in  green-sand  core  practice,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  provision  must  be  made  on  the  core  irons,  both  for  carrying 
up,  if  need  be,  and  keeping  down  the  cores  while  under 
pressure  at  the  time  of  pouring  the  moulds.  Fig.  77  is  a  small 
bend  showing  in  plan  the  core-iron  passing  round  the  end  of 
the  moulding-box,  and  marked  thus,  X,  where  it  is  carried 
up,  and  held  down  when  wedged  "  iron-and-iron "  with  the 
moulding-box.  A  plain  core-iron  for  the  smallest  of  bends 
and  made  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  77  is  quite  sufficient,  but 
larger  diameters  must  have  "  winged  core-irons,"  the 
wings  being  divided  at  about  6-in.  centres,  and  about  1  in. 

a-side  clear  of  the  in- 
ternal diameter  of  the 
pattern,  which  of  course 
is  the  core-box  for  a 
shell  pattern.  The 


centre  rib  and  wings  of 
the   core-irons  in  ques- 

FIG.  77.  tion  must  be  in  propor- 

tion to  the  diameter  or 

weight  of  core  any  given  core-iron  must  carry.  Thus  Fig.  77 
but  barely  shows  the  principles  of  a  core-iron,  etc.,  which 
might  be  any  weight  known  to  "  bend  pipe  casting  "  without 
chaplets  or  stangey. 

Pipes  cast  with  core  irons  of  this  description  and  where  no 
chaplets,  etc.,  are  used,  are  always  superior  castings  for 
duty,  as  against  those  cast  on  jobbing  lines  with  the 
orthodox  use  of  chaplets,  nails,  or  stangeys,  these  being 
responsible  for  a  goodly  percentage  of  the  losses  in  jobbing 
pipe  founding. 

Cores  for  Bank  Pipes. — This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting 
branches  of  core  making  in  moulding.  Bank  pipes  above 
2  ins.  diameter  and  upwards  to  10  ins.,  are  cast  in  9-ft.  lengths, 


GENEEAL  PIPE  CORE  MAKING  149 

below  this  in  6-ft.  lengths ;  therefore,  allowing  not  less  than 
6  ins.  at  each  end  of  the  pipe  mould  for  "  bearing,"  these 
core-boxes  should  be  approximately  7  ft.  and  10  ft.  long 
respectively.  All  these  cores  are  made  on  benches  and  with 
a  strong  iron  core-box  as  shown  in  section  at  Fig.  78,  which 
opens  and  shuts  on  hinges,  a  thing  common  to  all  bank  pipe 
core-boxes.  The  speed  with  which  these  cores  pass  through 
the  hands  of  the  core  makers,  who,  as  a  rule,  are  the  pipe 
moulders,  is  characteristic  of  the  movements  of  these  moulders 
from  the  start  of  their  day's  work  to  its  finish.  For  instance, 
a  10-in.  pipe  core  has  been  found  to  take  eight  minutes  to 
make  completely,  plus  the  time  occupied  preparatory  to 
starting  a  set  of  ten  for  a  day's  bank  casting  of  this 
diameter. 

Fig.  78  is  not  drawn  to  any  particular  scale,  but  merely 
to  give  a  sectional  idea  of  what  these  cores  contain  and  the 
method  of  making  them,  which  is  as  follows : — First,  a  little 
sand  is  put  into  the  bottom  half  of  the  core-box ;  after  this  the 
core-iron  A   (Fig.  78)  is  bedded  solid,  as 
shown  in  this  figure  ;  the  vent  B  is  formed 
by  a  rod  of  iron  rammed  up  in  the  core  in 
the  bottom  half  of  the  box ;  next,  the  top 
half  is  rammed,  and  due  care  is  taken  here 
to  see  that  the  stud  C  is  solidly  bedded  on 
to  the  face  of  the  top  side  of  the  core,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  78.     At  this  point  we  con- 
clude the  core  to  be  jointed  and  parted  and  FIG.  78. 
taken  from  the  core-box,  afterwards  finished 
and   blackwashed  green.     The  finish  of  these  cores  prepara- 
tory to  their  being  placed  in  the  moulds,  is  the  placing  of 
them  in  the  stoves  for  drying  purposes,  hence  they  are  called 
"dry-sand  cores." 

Vertical  Loam  Pipe  Cores. — Passing  on  to  the  vertical  section 
of  pipe  cores  in  a  pipe  factory,  we  get  two  distinct  methods  of 
core  making,  viz.,  loam  and  dry  sand.  The  first  is  by  straw 
ropes  with  first  and  second  coating  of  loams  of  two  distinct 
qualities. 

There  is  nothing  unusual  about  these  cores ;  it  is  simply  a 
case  of  coating  and  drying  alternately,  so  that  no  illustrations 


150  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

in  this  branch  of  core-making  are  necessary.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  these  cores  are  run  up  horizontally  and  are  dried 
in  this  position,  and  after  being  blackwashed  and  again  dried, 
are  slung  into  the  vertical  position  and  placed  in  the  moulds 
preparatory  to  pouring.  This  composition  of  core,  viz.,  straw 
(or  wood  wool)  and  loam,  is  used  for  vertical  pipe  castings, 
say,  from  3  ins.  to  20  ins.  diameter,  and  from  9  ft.  to  12  ft. 
in  length. 

Loam  cores  are  the  costliest  of  all  cores,  nevertheless  they 
are  the  safest  when  used  under  normal  conditions  of  treatment, 
and  in  many  cases  become  the  cores  of  all  cores  when  others 
fail,  as  they  have  no  equal  for  safety  of  venting  and  strength 
of  surface,  which  give  density  of  skin  on  the  casting,  fragility 
for  easy  contraction  which  at  all  times  avoids  slackening,  so 
as  to  prevent  irretrievable  loss  from  bursting  of  a  casting 
while  shrinking  and  cooling  to  atmospheric  temperature  ;  and 
last,  but  not  least,  a  core  as  here  suggested  has  no  equal  for 
speedy  fettling. 

Core  bars  used  for  this  class  of  cores  are  of  two  different 
kinds,  grooved  and  hollow,  the  former  being  solid  with 
grooves  running  from  end  to  end  for  the  passage  of  air  and 
its  speedy  discharge  from  the  top  end  while  pouring  the 
casting. 

The  larger  diameters  are  made  hollow  and  perforated  with 
f-in.  or  f-in.  holes  at  about  8-in.  centres,  these  being  more 
than  sufficient  for  the  purpose  intended.  The  above  gives  but 
a  brief  outline  of  pipe  factory  loam  core  making  for  vertical, 
dry-sand  pipe  founding  from  3  ins.  to  20  ins.  diameter,  and 
from  this  we  pass  on  to  the  last  method  of  pipe  core  making 
in  pipe  factory  practice.  Perhaps  it  should  be  mentioned  that 
from  time  to  time  attempts  have  been  made  to  make  loam 
cores  in  the  pipe  factories  without  the  use  of  straw  ropes 
altogether,  by  using  a  porous  and  fibrous  loam  capable  of 
adhering  to  the  core-bar  and  working  to  a  finished  core.  So 
far  this  has  had  but  small  success  ;  indeed,  the  epithet  "  not 
impossible,  but  impracticable,"  in  my  opinion,  is,  to  say  the 
least  of  it,  most  adaptable. 

Vertical  Dry-Sand  Pipe  Core  Making. — Some  foundries  use 
a  "  kellet,"  the  face  of  which  is  made  of  loam,  while  others  have 


GENEEAL   PIPE   COEE   MAKING  151 

nothing  from  the  base  of  the  faucet  down  to  what  may  be  called 
the  parting  line.  Nothing  but  iron,  or  in  other  words  the  iron 
drag  is  tightly  bolted  to  the  carriage  on  which  it  is  placed. 
This  in  turn  has  the  core-bar  fixed  in  position,  and  standing 
perfectly  erect,  ready  for  the  core-box  which  enshrouds  it 
preparatory  to  the  operation  of  ramming  the  core.  So  that 
with  carriage  and  wheels,  we  have  a  vertical  height  of  16  ft.  or 
17  ft.  from  the  greatest  lengths  of  casings,  and  in  order  to  get 
at  the  ramming  of  these  cores,  scaffolding  about  3  ft.  below 
the  level  of  the  top  end  of  the  core-box  is  provided  for  the 
men  who  are  thus  engaged  ramming.  It  is  interesting  at  first 
sight  to  see  these  men,  sometimes  three  or  four,  or  even  more, 
marching  round  on  the  scaffold,  manipulating  their  rammers 
with  that  precision  which  marks  in  every  stroke  good  work- 
manship; while  another  man  keeps  up  the  supply  of  sand. 
The  rammers  are  of  various  lengths,  the  longest  being  a 
few  inches  more  than  the  length  of  the  core  which  is  being 
rammed,  and  are  changed  for  shorter  ones  at  the  different 
stages  while  progressing  upwards,  until  the  ramming  is 
finished. 

At  various  times  machine-ramming  has  been  introduced  in 
this  class  of  pipe  founding,  but,  so  far  as  the  author  knows, 
its  success  has  not  been  established.  Hence  it  is  that  hand- 
ramming  holds  the  field  against  all  mechanical  methods 
in  so  far  as  good  workmanship  and  cost  of  production  in 
the  ramming  of  vertical  pipes  in  pipe  foundry  practice  is 
concerned. 

On  the  core  being  finished  at  the  top,  the  core-box,  which, 
of  course,  is  of  iron  and  finished  with  a  workable  taper,  is 
next  taken  away  by  being  drawn  right  up  vertically,  and 
passed  over  the  top  of  the  core  entirely  out  of  the  way.  On 
this  being  done  the  faucet  core-box,  which  is  in  halves,  is 
next  placed  in  position,  then  rammed,  and  by  this  last  move- 
ment of  ramming  the  core  is  completed,  save  for  finishing 
and  black  washing. 

The  carriage  containing  the  core  when  finished  is  passed 
into  the  stove  to  dry,  and  as  the  amount  of  sand  on  each  side 
of  the  core  bar  of  these  cores  need  not  be  more  than  2  ins., 
it  will  readily  be  noticed  that  they  are  not  difficult  to  dry. 


152  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

This  is  more  especially  the  case  with  the  larger  diameters  in 
this  division  of  core  making  in  pipe  factory  practice.  Of  course 
these  core-bars  are  perforated  with  vent  holes  in  the  usual 
way,  and  the  sand  with  which  the  cores  are  made  is  of  the 
ordinary  mixture  of  "  black  "  and  rock  sand,  the  latter  being 
proportioned  according  to  the  strength  of  the  black  sand ;  but 
frequently  two  of  rock  to  one  of  black  is  quite  safe  for  all 
purposes. 

Obviously  such  a  core  as  here  described  would  give  trouble 
were  it  placed  in  a  mould  cast  in  any  other  position  than  the 
vertical  one.  As  a  result,  we  see  that  metal,  while  flowing  in 
a  mould  will  practically  lie  to  any  form  of  sand,  whether  it  be 
cope  or  core,  if  dried  and  in  the  vertical  position  while  casting. 
By  this  we  see  clearly  that  while  such  a  core  as  described  is 
everything  that  could  be  desired  so  long  as  it  is  used  in  the 
position  referred  to,  a  core  made  on  this  principle,  at  least 

with  medium  and  larger  diameters,  would 

be  utterly  unsuitable  for  pipes  that  are  cast 

horizontally. 

Hence   the   importance   of   watching  the 

positions  of  cores  in  a  mould,  and  dealing 
FIG.  79.  with    them   according   to    their    individual 

requirements.  Therefore  it  is  that  all  cores 
of  this  type  must  be  slackened  to  facilitate  shrinkage,  and 
thus  lessen  danger  of  bursting  the  casting.  For  this  purpose 
many  are  the  devices  of  "  collapsible  bars  "  that  have  been 
tried,  and  are  in  use,  for  the  expediting  of  slackening  vertical- 
cast  pipe  cores. 

Fig.  79  is  part  of  a  V  slit  which  passes  from  end  to  end  of 
the  core-bar  and  is  held  in  position  by  a  simple  form  of 
mechanism.  This  slit,  at  the  right  moment  after  the  pipe  is 
cast,  is  undone,  and  thereby  the  bar,  in  a  measure,  collapses 
sufficiently  far  for  the  safety  of  the  pipe  in  shrinking.  This 
done  the  bar  is  ultimately  removed  by  rapping,  and  the  pipe 
becomes  absolutely  safe  for  shrinking.  The  operation  of 
slackening  can  be  facilitated  by  these  core -bars  having  a  little 
taper  towards  their  bottom  ends. 

All  are  not  agreed  as  to  method  of  slackening  the  core- 
bars  to  facilitate  shinkage.  All  the  same,  they  use  the 


CHILLED   CASTINGS  153 

space  as  shown  in  Fig.  79,  and  fake  it  with  steel  plate, 
of  course  with  due  regard  to  efficiency  of  core-bar  and 
flexibility  for  shrinkage. 


CHILLED   CASTINGS 

When  fluid  iron  of  suitable  composition  is  cast  in  contact 
with  cold  iron  the  casting  has  a  skin  or  surface  layer  of  hard 
white  iron  and  is  known  as  a  chilled  casting.  A  chilled 
casting  may  be  made  by  casting  with  a  metal  core  or  in  a 
metal  mould,  these  being  known  respectively  as  "  mandrel  " 
and  "chill." 

Mandrels  require  a  coating  of  some  substance  such  as 
blackwash,  oil  and  parting  sand,  or,  what  is  far  better, 
common  tar,  in  order  to  promote  their  easy  discharge  from 
the  casting.  Tar,  if  judiciously  applied,  will  produce  the 
hardest  and  most  glassy 
skin  possible  on  a  chilled 
casting.  Mandrels  should 
also  always  have  sufficient 
taper  to  admit  of  their  easy 
discharge  from  the  cast- 
ing. 

Chills  are  made  of  cast 
iron  from  patterns  in  the 
usual  way,  and  are  used 
for  the  purpose  of  harden- 
ing outside  surfaces  of  FlG<  80 
castings,  such  as  illus- 
trated at  Fig.  80.  Opinion  is  divided  as  to  what  should  be 
the  thickness  of  the  chill  as  compared  with  the  casting  to  be 
chilled.  Some  are  strongly  in  favour  of  making  chills  1  in. 
thick  to  every  eighth  part  of  an  inch,  for  whatever  thickness 
of  metal  the  chill  has  to  contend  with  during  the  process  of 
chilling.  Now,  according  to  this,  f-in.  metal  in  section 
would  mean  5  ins.  thickness  for  chill,  and  from  the  same 
standpoint  J  in.  would  mean  7  ins.  Such  would  work  out 
ridiculously,  as  an  anvil  face  of  about  10  ,cwts.,  roughly  put, 


154  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

would  require  a  chill  casting  as  thick  in  section  as  the  anvil 
face  casting  referred  to. 

It  is  common  to  some  classes  of  chills  to  crack  at  a  first 
use,  and  become  useless ;  therefore  all  chills  should  be  cast  of 
the  strongest  iron  possible,  and  hematite  iron  is  often  used. 
The  cracking  of  chills  is  mostly  confined  to  those  of  cylin- 
drical design,  and  to  minimise  such  accidents,  the  use  of 
binders  and  malleable  hoops  is  extremely  commendable  in 
the  case  of  heavy  cylindrical  chill  moulds  or  chill  casings. 
Chills  of  every  section  should  be  cast  with  hematite  iron  or 
brands  not  inferior  in  quality  and  low  in  graphite,  silicon  and 
phosphorus.  From  these  brands,  on  account  of  their  superior 
density  and  purity,  the  best  possible  chills  are  obtained. 
Were  it  possible  to  make  chills  of  perfectly  dense  metal  free 
from  graphite,  silicon  and  phosphorus,  the  maximum  chilling 
effect  would  be  produced,  while  at  the  same  time  such  chills 
would  have  a  much  longer  life. 

A  chill  having  a  burned  face  has  the  effect  of  giving 
imperfect  chilling  as  well  as  an  imperfect  face  on  the  casting. 
As  soon  as  a  chill  reaches  this  stage  owing  to  repeated  casting 
it  loses  its  power  of  chilling  properly,  and  this  with  irregu- 
larities of  surface  condemns  it  as  a  chill.  Wherever  chills 
are  employed  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  free  from 
damp ;  and  on  this  score  much  care  is  advisable,  otherwise, 
there  may  be  an  accident  when  fluid  metal  and  chill  come  in 
contact  with  each  other.  Therefore,  see  to  it  that  iron  chills 
are  dry  through  and  through,  and  entirely  free  from  oxide  or 
rust  of  any  kind. 

Flat  surface  chills  that  are  defective,  will  not  permit  of 
patching  of  any  kind,  no  matter  however  small  it  may  be. 
Eubbing  up  with  plumbago  and  oil  is  a  common  practice, 
but  these  must  be  discriminately  applied,  and  care  taken 
to  see  that  none  of  this  compound  sticks  to  the  chill ;  but, 
with  a  polish  produced  therefrom,  and  if  the  above  pre- 
cautions be  observed,  a  satisfactory  casting  should  be  pro- 
duced with  safety  when  cast  at  a  heat  compatible  with  proper 
running. 

Chilled  Cast-Iron  Wheels. — It  has  been  said  that  chilled 
wheels  are  distinctly  an  American  product.  Be  that  as  it  may, 


CHILLED   CASTINGS  155 

the  writer  is  old  enough  to  remember  that  chilled  cast-iron 
wheels  for  general  waggon  and  coal-truck  building  were  quite 
common  for  many  of  the  side  and  some  of  the  main  railroads, 
traffic  in  Britain.  But  these  have  long  since  been  prohibited 
on  all  railroads  in  this  country  by  legal  enactment.  Those 
wheels  when  cast  in  this  country,  besides  being  chilled  on 
their  rims,  were  also  cut  in  their  bosses,  and  were  afterwards 
bound  by  malleable  hoops,  and  by  this  means  their  safety 
was  doubly  assured  against  springing  from  undue  strains, 
an  evil  from  contraction  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  com- 
mon to  all  wheels  cast  with  solid  centres.  Wheels  that 
are  cut  through  their  solid  centres,  as  a  rule  open  up  with 
a  loud  report  as  the  tool  is  nearing  the  end  of  the  opera- 
tion of  cutting,  the  smallest  diameters  sometimes  giving  the 
loudest  reports,  but  which,  in  any  case,  is  a  tell-tale  of 
undue  strain  on  such  castings.  There  is  nothing  patent  to 
describe  in  the  moulding  of  these  wheels;  each  wheel  has 
its  own  chill,  and  it  is  bedded  in  the  usual  way,  moulded 
and  cast  with  a  suitable  mixture  peculiar  to  the  wants  of  the 
car  wheel  trade. 

Design. — Much  stress  is  placed  upon  the  designing  of  car 
and  bogey  wheels,  and  the  influence  of  the  chill  as  well  has  got 
to  be  reckoned  with,  while  the  arms  and  boss  must  remain  grey, 
thus  making  the  boss  suitable  for  boring.  The  rim  or  tread 
of  the  wheel,  when  right,  should  be  chilled  to  a  depth  of  not 
less  than  f  in.,  grading  itself  from  the  grey  colour  within  to 
absolute  white  on  the  surface.  A  gradually  chilled  texture 
from  the  surface  inwards  is  always  better  than  a  sharply 
marked  line  of  demarcation.  The  usual  thickness  of  these 
wheels  is  between  3  ins.  and  4  ins.  and  their  depth  is  governed 
by  the  width  of  the  rim  and  the  flange  of  the  casting.  The 
ordinary  depth  is  4  ins.,  and  on  calculation  the  section  comes 
out  at  4  ins.  by  3^  ins.  These  calculations  and  the  section  of 
the  chills  used  in  their  production  are  taken  by  some  as 
important  factors  in  the  manufacture  of  chilled  wheel 
castings. 

Metals  most  Suitable. — Iron  for  chilled  castings,  whatever  be 
the  mixture,  must  not  contain  more  silicon  sulphur  or  phos- 
phorus than  is  compatible  with  the  safety  of  the  casting  while 


156  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

shrinking.     For  ordinary  chilled  castings  the  analysis  should 
read  thus : — 


Graphite     . 

Combined  Carbon 

|       .       -60            ,             -75 

Silicon        .    •     . 

.       -50 

•70 

>5 

Manganese         ,    ••     . 

.      S     '30     ;  * 

•50 

,, 

Sulphur     .         ... 

,"*.    .       -05 

•07 

j  j 

Phosphorus 

•35 

•45 

,, 

Annealing  Chilled  Wheels. — This  process  is  simple.  After 
the  wheels  are  cast  they  are  lifted  when  they  are  still  at  a 
cherry  red  heat  and  placed  in  suitable  pits,  in  which  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  for  five  or  six  days,  by  which  time  they  are 
perfectly  cooled  down,  and  by  this  very  slow  cooling  casting 
strains  become  considerably  equalized  all  over.  Pits  for  this 
process  of  annealing  are  made  to  contain  any  reasonable 
number  between  twelve  and  twenty ;  the  pits  being  closed 
in  order  that  the  process  of  annealing  may  go  on  most  satis- 
factorily. Other  types  of  castings  might  be  dealt  with,  but 
space  forbids.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  all  chilled  castings  or 
partially  chilled  castings  are  made  from  metal  moulds,  or  from 
moulds  that  are  partly  of  metal  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
casting  to  be  operated  upon.  For  other  methods  of  chilling, 
or  modified  chilling,  see  Fig.  86.  However,  we  must  never 
lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  chilling  by  iron  moulds  is  always 
most  satisfactory  when  applied  to  plain  surfaces  where 
shrinkage,  under  normal  conditions,  develops  uninterruptedly. 

Sandless  Castings. — For  a  number  of  years  back  there  has 
been  cast  what  is  known  as  sandless  pig  metal.  This  is  cast 
in  iron  moulds  or  chills.  The  term  "  chill  "  is  a  misnomer  in 
sandless  pig  metal,  as  practically  no  chilling,  in  the  sense  of 
the  term,  is  effected,  nor  is  intended,  the  whole  arrangement 
being  simply  a  mechanical  process  for  speed  in  pouring,  or 
casting,  at  the  modern  smelting  furnace,  where  moulding 
according  to  usual  pig-bed  casting  practice  would  utterly  fail 
to  supply  sand  moulds  for,  say,  from  two  to  three  hundred  tons 
smelted  in  every  twenty-four  hours,  some  furnaces  being 
credited  with  an  excess  of  the  maximum  mentioned.  Thus 
far  the  contrast  between  chilled  castings  and  sandless  castings 
is  comparatively  clear. 


CHILLED  CASTINGS  157 

But  to  take  a  more  recent  date,  we  have  it  on  authority 
that  many  castings  which  hitherto  were  cast  in  sand-moulds, 
can  now  be  got  phenomenally  quicker  from  "  iron-moulds  " 
or  chills,  because  what  took  hours  before  to  cast,  can  now 
be  done,  it  is  said,  in  as  many  minutes.  This  applies  chiefly 
to  the  motor  car  castings  trade,  and  has  special  bearing 
on  cylinders.  The  secret  of  this  process  is  said  to  be  the 
result  of  many  years'  research  and  experimenting.  The  fore- 
going we  pass  by  without  serious  comment,  but  assuming  the 
process  to  be  as  reported,  we  are  safe  in  saying  that  it  is  but  in 
embryo,  and  the  chances  are  that  it  will  take  us  many  more 
years,  if  ever  it  is  seen,  before  this  process  of  moulding  will 
establish  itself  on  the  lines  suggested,  which  are  those  of 
economy  in  the  costs  of  production. 

However,  if  the  term  "  sandless  castings  "  be  new,  the  pro- 
cess of  casting  in  iron-moulds  has  been  in  operation  since  our 
earliest  recollections  of  the  craft.  Sash  weights,  bedsteads, 
etc.,  and  core-irons  for  the  foundry  being  cast  in  light  sections 
thus  ^  are  made  from  iron-moulds  that  are  cut  from  malleable 
iron  or  steel  blocks.  Such  core-irons  are  very  serviceable,  and 
more  economical  than  when  cast  in  sand,  according  to  use  and 
wont  in  core-iron  moulding,  and  where  specialty  work  is  done. 

Iron-moulds  that  are  used  for  the  production  of  marketable 
castings  must  have  a  coating  of  some  refractory  material  that 
will  also  put  a  passable  "  skin  "  on  the  casting.  For  this 
purpose  a  French-chalk,  or  plumbago-liquid,  or  perhaps  a 
compound  of  both,  with  sufficient  adhesion  to  the  iron-moulds, 
is  applied  by  painting  or  spraying,  according  to  usual 
foundry  practice,  and  if  of  the  right  mixture,  this  application 
should  not  need  repeating  oftener  than  with  every  three 
or  four  consecutive  castings.  This  fluid  should  be  sparingly 
used,  as  no  iron-mould  or  similar  vessel  can  be  "  skinned  " 
or  coated  either  with  vegetable  or  mineral  substances,  without 
causing  the  generation  of  gas  when  in  contact  with  fire,  or 
fluid  metal.  From  this  view-point  it  is  seen  that  gas  has  got  to 
be  reckoned  with.  Therefore,  the  thicker  the  moulds  are  coated 
with  the  substances  in  question,  the  trouble  with  gas,  or  air, 
at  time  of  pouring  the  moulds  will  become  proportionately 
intensified ;  and  there  being  practically  no  escape  for  gases 


158  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

from  iron-moulds,  except  between  such  joints  as  they  may 
possess,  the  chances,  apart  from  all  other  considerations,  are 
all  in  favour  of  a  sand-mould  for  successful  casting.  With  a 
foundry  of  iron-moulds,  we  only  require  a  place  to  melt  metal 
and  a  covering  from  the  weather,  conditions  for  moulding 
that  are  too  rosy  to  be  real.  From  the  foregoing  we  see  that 
"  sandless-casting "  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  moulding ; 
consequently,  this  branch  of  the  trade  is  reduced  to  "  casting  " 
only,  and  in  that  way  establishes  the  distinction,  in  a  measure, 
between  moulding  and  casting.  At  the  same  time  we  may  take 
it  that,  with  sandless  or  iron-mould  casting,  nothing  but  the 
sash  weight  or  castings  of  similar  design  is  possible,  and  a 
contrary  opinion  shows  a  want,  or  at  least  a  limited  knowledge 
of  the  laws  of  expansion  and  contraction.  Hence,  with  snugs, 
claws,  and  the  hundred-and-one  projections  common  to  almost 
every  type  of  casting,  the  wonder  is  how  there  should  be  two 
opinions  on  this  question  of  foundry  practice. 

Of  course,  much  in  this  direction  is  hoped  for  from  soft  irons, 
with  a  minimum  of  shrinkage ;  and  if  for  argument's  sake  this 
be  admitted,  how  is  iron  with  an  excess  of  silicon  going  to  suit 
motor-car  cylinders,  the  casting  of  special  consideration  attract- 
ing the  attention  of  those  who  advocate  this  so-called  new 
process  of  sandless  casting  ?  Silicous  iron  will  no  more  do 
for  cylinder  castings,  in  my  opinion,  than  cold  blast  iron, 
compounded  with  white  metal,  will  suit  pipes  or  hollow  metal 
castings,  and  such  like. 

FLASKS  OR  MOULDING  BOXES 

The  importance  of  having  a  suitable  box  for  any  given  job 
is  naturally  the  first  concern  of  every  moulder  since  it  increases 
or  diminishes  so  materially  the  cost  of  production,  both  in  the 
matter  of  time  and  in  securing  a  good  casting.  At  no  time 
can  we  say  that  "  British  practice  "  was  anything  but  iron 
flasks.  Still,  to  know  that  wood  may  be  substituted  in  some 
cases  for  iron,  as  in  "  American  foundry  practice,"  may 
not  be  without  its  advantages ;  although  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  wooden  flasks  in  America  are  now  being  displaced 
by  the  superior  iron  flask,  doubtless  due  to  the  wonderful 


FLASKS   OR  MOULDING  BOXES  159 

development  of  the  iron  industries  in  the  States  during  the 
last  fifteen  years. 

With  this  part  of  foundry  plant  the  assets  of  any  foundry 
concern  may  be  unduly  increased  by  boxes  being  indis- 
criminately made,  perhaps,  for  one  or  two  castings  only — not 
an  unusual  occurrence  with  some  jobbing  foundries.  Hence 
it  becomes  a  matter  of  first  importance  in  pricing  for  castings 
to  see  what  sort  of  plant  there  is  for  such  and  such  a  pattern 
before  fixing  a  price,  otherwise  mistakes  will  undoubtedly 
occur. 

The  impossibility  of  illustrating  the  innumerable  types  of 
boxes  for  a  jobbing  foundry  goes  without  saying,  and  the  man 
who  has  only  one  way  of  making  any  given  job,  or  by  one 
plant  only,  is  by  no  means  fully  qualified  to  manage  a  jobbing 
foundry.  But  the  man  who  can  determine  to  make  plant,  and 
thereby  show  a  saving  in  the  aggregate  cost  of  his  castings,  as 
against  another  man  who  may  be  wasting  money  by  working 
at  the  same  job  with  unsuitable  plant,  is  the  only  man,  in  my 
opinion,  who  is  entitled  to  hold  the  management  of  a  foundry 
that  means  business.  Consequently,  two  or  three  examples, 
together  with  what  is  already  given  on  this  subject  in  this 
work,  may  suffice  to  illustrate  the  general  and  most  economical 
principles  in  foundry  moulding  plant. 

First,  in  the  making  of  a  horizontal  or  Corliss  cylinder  box, 
say,  2  or  3  tons'  weight,  one  might  insist  on  having  each  half  cast 
in  one  complete  piece,  which  of  course  would  mean  its  four  sides 
(or  sides  and  ends)  and  bars  arranged  on  pattern  or  otherwise, 
and  other  attachments  as  the  case  may  be,  all  in  one  complete 
pattern,  while  another  man  would,  perhaps,  build  it  with  bolts, 
bars,  sides,  and  ends  that  were  cast  separate.  Therefore  in 
such  a  case  a  frame,  or  plate  pattern  for  the  sides  and  ends, 
and  a  single  pattern  to  cast  bars  for  same,  cover  all  expenses 
in  the  way  of  making  a  cylinder  box  pattern  for  large 
cylinder  moulding  on  the  lines  of  practice  referred  to.  More- 
over, the  principle  of  providing  for  future  alterations,  or 
extensions,  is  at  all  times  worthy  of  consideration,  and  this  is 
specially  the  case  either  with  jobbing  or  special  plant,  the 
latter  being  at  times  very  costly — such  as,  for  example,  the 
casings  of  ordinary  vertical  pipe  factory  plant,  where 


160 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 


the  lengths  of  the  larger  diameters  vary  from  9  ft.  to 
12  ft.,  or  even  what  is  now  more  up-to-date,  13ft.  l^ins.  long. 
Subjoined  are  a  few  "fakes"  in  box-pattern  making,  which 
gives  an  outline  of  the  needs  in  this  division  of  a  jobbing 
foundry,  etc. 

Fig.  81  is  an  oblong  sketch  of  a  top  part  flask,  which  can 
be  made  as  shown  with  its  two  corners  cut,  so  as  to  reduce 
weight,  and  thus  make  it  more  suitable  for  half-wheel  cast- 
ings, etc. ;  but  whether  it  be  cast  as  illustrated  or  truly  oblong, 
the  working  out  of  this  proposition  is  the  same.  In  moulding 
this  box  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  more  than  one  half  of  the 
pattern,  and  not  as  illustrated,  the  rest  being  made  from 
sketch  or  dimensions ;  but  it  must  be  made  by  a  moulder 

who  knows  his  busi- 
ness well,  or  else  the 
risk  of  getting  a  scrap 
instead  of  a  box  cast- 
ing as  desired  will  be 
doubly  intensified  by 
this  procedure.  It 
will  be  observed  that 
in  the  design  the 

handles  are  cast  iron. 
FIG.  81.  mi 

These  are  safest  and 

best  when  put  in  position  after  all  the  preliminaries  of  mould- 
ing are  past,  as  by  doing  so  no  danger  from  damp  is  at  all 
likely  to  be  experienced.  These  handles  are  made  from  a  block 
core-box,  as  described  in  "  Starting  a  Small  Foundry  "  (p.  8 
and  Fig.  8).  To  those  who  may  have  a  dread  of  cast-iron 
handles  as  thus  described,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  even 
although  you  may  have  20  tons  to  account  for  there  is  no 
danger  because,  if  properly  designed  and  proportioned  for 
their  work,  they  will  stand  in  places,  in  some  cases,  where  the 
malleable  handles  would  be  a  failure  ;  at  least,  such  is  the 
experience  of  the  writer,  and  under  normal  conditions  of 
working  I  never  saw  a  failure. 

The  four  studs  or  snugs  at  their  respective  corners,  and 
marked  A,  are  for  staking  purposes.  The  pattern  pieces  con- 
sist of  the  following,  and  are  partially  illustrated  in  Fig.  81. 


FLASKS  OE  MOULDING  BOXES 


161 


The  outside  parts  and  internal  parallel  pattern  pieces  are 
approximately  9  ins.  to  10  ins.  deep,  cut  to  suitable  lengths, 
by  1J  ins.  thick,  and  finished  in  the  pattern  shop  to  a  workable 
taper ;  all  cross  bars  to  be  set  at  6-in.  centres,  J  in.  less  in 
depth  than  the  bars  above  mentioned,  greatest  thickness  1  in., 
and  to  be  chamfered  according  to  pattern-box  practice  in 
foundry  plant. 

Fig.  82  represents  a  box  part  pattern  for  a  V-grooved  wire- 
rope  pulley  moulding-box.  This  box,  when  completed  and  cast, 
should  measure  18  ft.,  which 
would  give  about  4  ins.  a-side 
for  parting  surface  at  its  nar- 
rowest part.  Fig.  82  is  but  a 
twelfth  part  of  the  circle,  and  a 
pulley  box  of  this  description  is 
made  by  twelve  consecutive  shifts 
of  the  pattern,  each  shift  neces- 
sitating that  the  pattern  be 
levelled  up  against  the  previous 
segment  of  the  mould.  If  the 
pattern  has  been  true  to  the 
divide  of  twelve,  the  space  thus 
left  for  the  twelfth  and  last 
segment  should  be  occupied  by 
the  pattern  exactly,  with  ordinary 
care  from  the  moulder  during 
the  operations  of  moulding  up 
to  this  point.  So  that  with  the 
ramming  of  this  last  segment  pattern,  and  the  drawing  of  it,  a 
moulding-box  of  this  description  becomes  practically  completed, 
and  so  finishes  the  job  from  a  pattern-maker's  point  of  view. 
The  cast-iron  handles  here  are  the  same  as  previously 
mentioned  ;  the  staking  snugs  A  (Fig.  81)  are  four  in  number 
and  placed  on  the  inside  of  the  box  at  a  divide  of  four. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  we  are  only  dealing  for  the 
present  with  the  general  principle,  and  giving  neither  section 
nor  details,  these  being  left  for  others  to  deal  with  as 
circumstances  demand. 

The  pulleys,  being  practically   the   model  of   the   bicycle 

F.P.  M 


FIG.  82 


162 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 


wheel,  the  centre  and  rim  are  cast  separately,  so  that  a 
separate  box  for  the  centre  is  designed  on  the  "  three-part " 
principle.  Of  course,  the  floor  constitutes  the  bottom  or 
drag,  the  mid  part  is  merely  a  frame  with  the  requisite  holes 
for  the  spokes,  and  the  top  part  is  a  duplicate  of  the  mid 
part  on  its  sides  of  suitable  depth,  say,  5  ins.  or  6  ins.,  and 
barred  across  in  the  way  most  common  to  top  flasks. 

Our  last  example  of  moulding-boxes  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  83, 
which  illustrates  a  box  of  four  or  five  parts,  as  the  case  may  be. 
If  for  standard  or  repeat  work,  five  parts  are  necessary,  but,  in  a 
jobbing  sense,  four  parts  in  all  probability  would  be  sufficient, 
and  in  which  case  a  "  cake  "  (not  shown),  to  cover  the  top  flange 

of  the  casting,  or  a  parting  and 
"  finger  iron  lift,"  as  shown  at 
Fig.  83,  A,  would  reduce  it  to 
a  four-part  job.  Practically 
there  is  no  limit  to  the  number 
of  boxes  for  any  given  job  in 
the  foundry,  and  these  are 
frequently  substituted  for,  by 
"cakes,"  etc.,  and  moulding  on 
these  lines  means  not  infre- 
quently economy  and  good 
practice  ;  but,  if  a  five-part  box 
were  adopted  for  the  job  that 
is  before  us,  provision  is  made  for  this,  and  illustrated  on 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  figure  in  question. 

In  Fig.  83  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  snugs  for  pins  and 
clamping  are  shown.  These  must  be  on  the  sides  at  right 
angles  to  the  swivels,  and  "  barring "  can  only  be  deter- 
mined according  to  individual  cases  or  convenience,  and 
thickness  or  strength  of  box  according  to  capacity.  The 
deepest  part  pattern  should  be  made  and  moulded  first,  the 
others  in  rotation,  and,  if  this  be  attended  to,  all  the  other 
parts,  whether  these  be  in  four  or  five  separate  boxes,  will 
obviously  be  made  from  the  one  pattern,  plus  snugs,  etc. 

So  far  in  this  subject  we  have  only  had  space  to  enunciate  a 
few  outstanding  principles  in  flask  or  box  moulding  for  jobbing 
work,  but  the  question  of  moulding- boxes  is  one  of  the  most 


FLASKS  OE  MOULDING  BOXES 


163 


important  ones  that  has  to  be  considered  in  the  economical 
working  of  a  foundry,  and  other  types  will  be  referred  to  in 
subsequent  pages. 

A  slight  reference  to  specialisation  in  pipe  factory  plant  is 
again  introduced  here,  but  the  importance  of  the  subject  to 
people  outside  this  method  of  moulding  altogether,  will,  it 
is  hoped,  be  ample  apology  for  what  further  space  may  be 
occupied. 

For  those  that  are  interested,  I  should  say,  first  grasp  the 
details  of  Fig.  84.  Sometimes  these  casings  are  cast  single, 
at  other  times  double,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  84,  and  not  infre- 
quently do  we  find  them  trebled — that  is  to  say,  a  casing  with 
three  compartments,  wherein  three  pipes  are  handled  collec- 
tively throughout,  thus  practically  tripling  all  the  movements  in 


FIG.  84. 


FIG.  85. 


the  process  of  moulding  and  casting  "  vertically  cast  pit  pipes  " 
in  the  factory.  On  the  other  hand,  some  hold  to  "  one  pipe  one 
casing  "  large  or  small ;  of  course,  this  is  immaterial  to  many, 
and  is  of  no  more  importance  than  the  term  "pit  pipes," 
because  in  some  cases  pipes  are  moulded  and  cast  on  the 
floor  level  of  the  foundry,  in  consequence  of  which  the  term 
"  pit  pipes  "  becomes  a  misnomer.  Therefore,  irrespective  of 
methods  the  one  pipe  is  equally  as  good  as  the  other. 

Now,  as  to  the  making  of  pipe-casings  for  vertically  cast 
pipes,  there  are  two  methods  here  also  :  (1)  moulding  by 
pattern,  and  (2)  sweeping  them  up  by  loam  horizontally  ;  and 
in  the  latter  process,  this  must  be  done  with  spindle  and  full 
length  of  loam  board  made  to  longitudinal  section  of  the  pipe 
casing.  Along  with  the  loam  board  mentioned  there  must  be 
the  odd  parts,  such  as  horizontal  flanges  for  binding  the  casing 
for  its  work,  and  the  end  flanges,  etc.,  shown  in  section  (Fig.  85). 

M  2 


164  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

These  with  the  "  rest "  for  the  spindle  to  work  in,  with  its  one, 
two,  or  three  centres,  according  to  the  number  of  divisions  in 
the  casing,  covers  practically  all  pattern  making  for  moulding 
pipe  casings  in  loam.  The  making  of  the  core  is  according  to 
common  loam  practice,  and  as  several  times  referred  to  in 
this  work. 

Where  single  casings  are  wanted,  a  pattern  to  mould  from 
is,  in  my  opinion,  the  easiest  and  cheapest  wherever  a  goodly 
number  is  wanted.  But  those  of  an  opposite  opinion  had 
better  perhaps  think  twice  before  deciding,  where  more  than 
one  pipe  in  the  casing  has  got  to  be  considered.  Needless  to 
say,  pipe  casings  are  cast  in  halves  and  bolted  together,  and 
the  smallest  of  them  should  not  be  less  than  1  in.  in  thick- 
ness, with  flanges  of  IJ-in.  metal. 

It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  the  casing  is  but  part  of 
the  pipe  moulding-box  in  a  factory,  as  every  casing  must  have 
its  carriage  and  equipment,  otherwise  it  is  no  use  for  moulding 
purposes.  The  casing  is  fixed  to  its  carriage  vertically  for 
moulding,  and  with  the  mould  finished,  it  is  afterwards  run 
into  the  stove,  and,  when  dried,  is  taken  out,  cored,  and  cast. 
After  being  cast,  only  one  half  of  the  casing  is  removed  at  the 
emptying  of  the  pipe  casting,  while  the  other  half  retains  its 
first  position  on  the  carriage  awaiting  the  return  of  its  neigh- 
bour for  further  use,  thus  showing  that  the  casing,  as  pre- 
viously explained,  is  but  part  of  the  moulding-box  for  producing 
vertically-moulded  pit  pipes  in  the  factory. 

Factory  plant,  as  illustrated  at  Figs.  84  and  85,  and  their 
indispensable  carriages  and  equipment  (not  illustrated,  but 
previously  mentioned),  creates  considerably  more  cost  for  pipe 
plant  than  is  common  to  ordinary  horizontal-box  moulding 
in  halves.  But  the  superiority  of  output  and,  most  of  all,  the 
incomparable  efficiency  of  the  sound  and  solid  castings  secured, 
give  to  factory-moulded  pipe  castings  a  uniqueness  truly 
their  own.  And  the  larger  diameters  cast  in  this  division  of 
pipe  founding,  when  compared  with  castings  of  a  similar 
section  in  other  divisions  of  foundry  work,  appear  to  be 
nothing  short  of  phenomenal,  since  it  is  a  fact  that  twelve 
48-in.  pipes  can  be  turned  out  in  a  "  shift  "  in  common  pipe 
factory  practice. 


GATES  AND   GATING  165 


GATES  AND  GATING 

The  term  "  gate  "  is  always  used  in  the  foundry  for  the  inlet  or 
outlet  of  a  mould,  the  former  being  to  moulders  the  "  pouring 
gate,"  and  the  latter  the  "  riser  "  or  "  flow  gate."  These  gates 
are  located  about  the  castings  according  to  their  individual 
requirements  as  will  be  seen  as  we  proceed. 

The  many  kinds  of  gates,  and  the  advantages  of  gating  on 
the  best  place  or  places  of  a  casting  form  a  subject  of  paramount 
interest  to  the  moulder.  Capacity,  location  and  distribution 
of  gates,  together  with  the  proper  speed  or  time  taken  to  fill  a 
mould,  cover  most  of  the  points  which  need  concern  a  moulder, 
while  arranging  how  to  "run  "his  job.  The  one  grand 
feature  about  gating  a  mould  is  to  understand  that  the  easiest 
and  quietest  way,  compatible  with  the  safety  of  the  mould,  is 
the  best  way  of  filling  a  mould  with  fluid  metal. 

Some  moulders  seem  to  have  the  idea  that  unless  their 
gates  be  from  the  highest  part  or  medium  depth  of  a  mould, 
the  metal  will  not  find  its  way  to  the  top  of  the  casting.  This 
is  a  delusion,  because  experience  has  proved  over  and  over 
again  that  the  best  castings,  in  every  sense  of  the  word,  are 
those  that  have  been  poured  and  gated  from  practically  their 
greatest  depths.  And,  wherever  suitable,  whether  ifc  be  in  the 
gating  of  loam,  green  sand,  or  dry  sand,  "  gating  from  the 
bottom  "  as  an  axiom,  with  a  few  exceptions,  will  work  out 
most  satisfactorily. 

Gates  and  Shrinkage. — Besides  the  speed  of  filling  a  mould 
from  the  most  suitable  place  or  places,  the  question  of  shrinkage 
here  again  asserts  itself,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  in  most 
castings.  With  castings  that  are  designed  in  such  a  way 
that  they  become  easily  affected  by  undue  heat,  gating 
without  due  consideration  of  the  after  effect  in  cooling 
may  result  in  producing  scrap  instead  of  castings,  as  has  been 
too  often  the  case  with  many  a  casting  thus  thoughtlessly 
treated,  the  gates  in  such  cases  aggravating  what  .was  already 
overburdened  by  heat,  perhaps,  caused  by  excessively  propor- 
tioned metal.  Or,  again,  it  might  only  be  the  case  of  a  well- 
proportioned  flat  plate,  gated  entirely  from  the  centre,  but 


166  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

which,  in  order  to  bring  it  out  straight  and  true,  should  have 
been  gated  from  both  ends  of  the  casting. 

Obviously,  a  plate  that  is  equal  metal  throughout  must 
inevitably  cool  from  its  ends  or  sides  first,  and  more  especially 
if  it  be  oblong.  This  being  so,  the  centre  naturally  remains 
longest  hot,  thereby  creating  a  tendency  for  the  casting  to 
warp  while  shrinking  and  cooling  to  atmospheric  temperature. 
Therefore,  in  such  cases,  the  cure  is,  undoubtedly,  gating  from 
both  ends  of.  the  casting.  Hence  we  see  that  wherever 
irregularity  of  cooling  is  likely  to  assert  itself,  a  judicious 
distribution  of  the  gates  with  a  view  to  secure  uniformity  of 
cooling  is  a  factor  of  importance  in  the  shrinking  and  cooling 
of  castings.  Thus  far  we  see  that  the  gates  have  at  times  a 
three-fold  function  to  perform  :  first,  "  running  "  the  casting; 
second,  "  rising  "  or  "  flowing  "  it ;  and  third,  the  influence 

they  exert  for  good  or  evil  on 
some  castings  while  cooling 
after  being  cast  or  poured. 

Names  of  Pouring  Gates.— 
These  are  too  varied  for 
enumeration ;  all  sections  or 

FTC    86 

forms    having     their    fancy 

terms  are  but  adaptations  of  some  particular  "  upright,"  or 
cut  gate,  to  a  certain  kind  of  casting.  No  matter  whether  a 
gate  be  round,  square,  oblong,  or  oval,  the  important  question 
is  that  of  its  position  and  capacity  for  filling  a  mould.  How- 
ever, the  names  of  a  few  of  the  pouring  gates  are  technically 
known  as  "drop,"  "cut,"  "worm"  and  "fountain"  gates, 
each  of  the  last  two  being  practically  the  prototype  of  the 
other,  the  worm  gate  being  formed  by  a  pattern  as  illustrated 
at  Fig.  86,  A,  and  the  fountain  gate  invariably  cut  as  shown 
at  Fig.  87.  The  worm  gate  (Fig.  86)  has  a  more  pronounced 
"  bow-handle"  form,  but  is  drawn  in  its  present  form  for  the 
convenience  of  clearer  illustration  than  is  possible  otherwise. 

Pouring  Gates. — Most  moulders  look  for  the  heaviest  part  of 
a  casting  for  placing  their  pouring  gates,  and  if  they  are  lucky 
in  securing  this,  and  more  especially  if  it  is  the  centre  of  a 
casting,  a  location  of  this  kind  usually  means  a  uniform  and 
safe  filling  of  the  mould,  when  pouring  it  with  one  ladle. 


GATES  AND   GATING 


167 


Moulds  gated  in  this  way  are  generally  considered  good 
practice ;  hence  the  importance  of  gating  on  the  bosses  of 
wheels,  pulleys,  etc.  But  although  this  is  the  case,  it  must 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  bosses  thus  gated  have  more  than 
enough  me!.al  here  to  keep  them  unduly  hot,  and  by  placing 
pouring  gates  on  bosses,  the  evil  from  intense  and  undue  heat 
in  the  centre  of  the  casting  (which  of  course  means  undue 
strain  on  a  casting  that  is  allowed  to  cool  as  it  pleases)  becomes 
doubly  intensified. 

Further,  if  such  a  boss  be  not  "  cut "  with  plates  or  cores,  be 
sure  that  at  the  earliest  convenience  the  core  is  removed  from 
the  centre  of  the  casting.  Likewise  expose  the  boss  thus 
treated  to  facilitate  cooling,  as  by  doing  so  we  minimise  the 
danger  consequent  on  unequal 
cooling. 

It  is  imperative  with  pul- 
leys and  wheels,  and  such 
like,  to  place  the  pouring  gates 
on  the  bosses,  but  the  facts 
as  above  stated  remain  the 
same,  although  they  seem  to 
be  too  frequently  lost  sight 
of  by  some  moulders,  if  ever 
they  knew  them  at  all.  And 

although  Fig.  87 x  is  illustrative  of  gating  right  down  through 
the  centre  of  a  boss  core,  such  a  method  of  gating  is  not,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  writer,  advisable  with  castings  of  this  type 
when  much  over  20  cwts.  in  weight,  rough  in  pitch,  and  also 
short  armed. 

,  Riser  Gates,  or  Flowers. — Either  of  these  terms  is  quite 
suggestive  of  the  work  these  gates  perform,  since  they  are  to 
a  moulder  what  an  overflow  is  to  every  liquid  vessel.  Still 
the  duty  assigned  to  them  is  collective,  inasmuch  as  they 
indicate  when  a  mould  is  full,  serve  as  a  blow-off  if  need  be, 
clean  what  otherwise  might  be  a  dirty  corner  in  a  casting,  and 

1  The  gates  or  sprues  as  shown  at  Fig.  87,  are  not  correct,  these  are  cut 
at  a  divide  of  2  or  4,  as  the  case  may  be,  on  the  bottom  of  the  core 
bearing  right  into  the  hub ;  but  for  obvious  reasons  they  cannot  be  so 
shown  in  this  view. 


FIG.  87. 


168  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

last,  but  not  least,  flow  gates  are  used  for  feeding  a  casting, 
without  which,  in  many  cases,  castings  would  be  lost. 

Flow  gates,  of  course,  have  their  limits  :  for  instance,  a  mould 
should  always  be  provided  in  the  aggregate  with  less  "  outlet " 
than  "  inlet,"  so  that  pressure  from  the  pouring  gates  will  be  the 
better  maintained  than  could  be  possible  with  gates  arranged 
in  the  other  way.  Were  flow  gates  of  greater  capacity  than  the 
pouring  gates  of  any  given  job,  then  the  metal,  if  poured  com- 
paratively dull,  would  under  such  conditions  pass  up  through 
the  gates  so  sluggishly  that  in  all  probability  it  would  begin  to 
solidify  in  them  and  never  find  its  way  into  the  basins  provided 
for  the  overflow  of  the  metal  of  a  mould  when  pouring. 

There  is  a  very  general  opinion  amongst  moulders  that 
flow  gates  or  risers  check,  or  at  least  assist  in  checking,  static- 
pressure  on  the  cope  and  bottom  of  a  mould.  There  is 
however,  very  little,  if  any,  justification  for  this  view.  The 
man  who  would  trust  to  this  as  a  factor  in  reducing  pressure 
of  any  kind,  and  be  tempted  to  reduce  the  weighting  of  his 
job  accordingly  would  undoubtedly  find  out  his  mistake  when 
it  was  too  late.  With  normal  pouring,  and  taking  the  pouring 
gates  to  be  maintaining  the  maximum  of  pressure,  any  relief 
that  can  possibly  come  from  the  riser  metal  passing  through 
the  gates  can  be  of  no  practical  value  in  reducing  the  maximum 
of  pressure.  Eisers  and  pouring  basins  as  a  rule  ultimately 
come  to  one  level,  and  in  any  case  the  risers  never  can  rise 
above  the  pouring  basins,  while  the  reverse  is  not  infrequently 
the  case.  The  fluid  pressure  on  any  part  of  a  mould  depends 
solely  upon  the  maximum  height  or  head  of  fluid  metal. 

Therefore,  as  vertical  height  and  superficial  square  inches 
determine  "  lifting  pressure,"  the  maximum  pressure  is  most 
conclusively  found  on  that  part  of  the  cope  which  is  in  most 
immediate  touch  with  the  pouring  gates,  and  remains  so  if 
there  be  not  sufficient  life  in  the  metal  to  ebb  and  flow  to  the 
one  level,  where  every  square  inch  in  contact  with  "lift  "  is 
equal  in  lifting  pressure,  irrespective  of  gates  altogether. 

A  treatise  on  gating  green  sand,  dry  sand,  and  loam, 
separately,  would  be  of  much  interest,  because  of  the  great 
variety  experience  has  found  necessary  to  employ.  But  as 
this  work  consists  of  generalities  only,  we  cannot  enter  upon 


GATES  AND  GATING 


82 


the  wider  field  suggested.  Nevertheless,  a  due  study  of  all 
the  propositions  of  gating  that  are  to  be  found  in  this  work 
will  doubtless  go  to  inform  the  reader  in  not  a  few  of  the 
principles  embodied  in  "gates  and  gating." 

After  all,  gating  with  most  work  is  but  a  part  of  the 
successful  pouring  of  castings,  one  of  the  principle  features 
being  "  position,"  and  were  this  lost  sight  of,  no  matter  what 
the  distribution  of  gates  on  a  casting,  unsuitable  position  of 
a  mould  while  pouring  would  spell  in  many  cases  bad  work. 
For  proof  of  this  we  find  it  in  cylinders  and  similar  castings, 
that  have  to  undergo  severe  machine  testing  or  tooling  in  the 
securing  of  polished  surfaces. 

Further,  gating  in  the  abstract  only  consists  of  drop-gates 
and  cut-gates,  the  former 
acting  direct  on  the 
mould,  and  the  latter 
being  cut  from  some  part 
of  a  "  parting  "  or  joint 
of  the  mould,  or  formed 
by  a  flat  gate  pin,  as 
shown  at  A,  Fig.  88 ;  which 
is  to  illustrate  the  gating 
of  a  condenser  of  the 
dimensions  given.1  In 
this  illustration  it  is 
seen  at  what  depth  metal 
can  enter  the  bottom 
of  a  mould,  and  after- 
wards rise  in  perfect 
safety  to  the  highest  part? 
and  flow  as  if  it  were  a 
case  of  metal  dropping  direct  in  the  mould  from  the  highest 
part.  And  to  any  who  may  have  the  least  fear  in  running 
a  mould  from  the  bottom,  the  experience  here  illustrated  should 
remove  all  doubt,  i.e.,  when  gates  are  correct  in  every  way, 
and  with  metal  of  suitable  fluidity.  Under  such  conditions 
of  gating,  and  where  abnormal  depth  may  be  concerned,  pour- 
ing basins  should  always  be  a  little  higher  than  riser  ones. 
1  The  depth  of  this  mould  is  12  feet  exclusive  of  basins. 


FIG. 


170  FACTS   ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

Of  course,  this  is  a  principle  which  should  be  observed  in  every 
kind  of  casting,  so  that  the  metal  may  the  sooner  reach  its 
maximum  of  pressure,  with  every  kind  of  metal  with  which  a 
mould  may  he  cast. 

The  "  dropping  "  of  metal  from  gates  into  a  loam  or  dry-sand 
mould  that  is  thoroughly  dry,  and  if  at  same  time  it  falls  through 
clear  space,  need  cause  no  fear  to  any  one.  The  strength  of 
these  moulds,  if  made  from  suitable  materials,  will  resist  the 
"  drop "  with  comparative  safety,  even  where  the  greatest 
depths  of  moulds  are  concerned,  i.e.,  when  judiciously  sup- 
ported or  finished  with  sprigs  and  venting.  But  with  green- 
sand  moulds  everything  in  this  respect  becomes  practically 
changed.  Hence  it  is  never  safe  to  use  "drop  gates"  in 
green-sand  when  the  space  is  greater  than  1-in.  section  metal, 
either  in  plate  or  pipe  sections,  as  everything  beyond  such 
thickness  is  positively  dangerous.  This  is  most  pronounced 
when  immediate  "  dropping "  does  not  at  the  same  time 
give  immediate  covering  to  the  surface  of  a  mould — such,  for 
example,  as  is  experienced  in  the  dropping  of  metal  on  the 
bottom  of  a  wheel  boss,  or  similar  contracted  space  in  a  mould, 
and  where  the  bottoms  in  green- sand  moulds  are  protected  for 
"  dropping." 

As  a  rule,  the  surfaces  of  moulds  can  never  be  covered  too 
quickly  with  metal  at  the  time  of  pouring ;  and  this  is  of 
more  consequence  in  green-sand  than  it  is  either  with  dry- 
sand  or  loam.  Green-sand  moulds  by  nature  are  more  gaseous 
and  much  weaker  than  dry-sand  or  loam,  and  their  tendency 
to  "  scab "  becomes  intensified  whenever  there  is  delay  in 
covering  the  surface  of  the  mould  when  pouring. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  since  a  retardation  of  pouring 
is  essential  to  the  burning  out  of  gases  in  the  core  or  cores 
of  some  moulds,  to  gate  without  a  due  regard  to  this, 
would  mean  the  inevitable  "blowing"  that  such  careless 
gating  or  a  want  of  knowledge  in  these  matters  has  unfortu- 
nately so  often  produced,  not  infrequently  the  result  being  a 
bad  casting.  This  class  of  work  being  mostly  of  vertical 
section,  slow  pouring  with  comparatively  milky-white  metal 
is  generally  fairly  safe,  in  so  far  as  homogeneity  or  freeness 
from  "coldshut"  metal  is  concerned — a  thing  common  to 


GATES  AND  GATING  171 

unduly  long  or  slow  pouring  of  moulds  that  are  cast  under 
normal  conditions. 

Briefly,  the  main  principles  of  gating  may  be  summed  up 
thus  :  first,  capacity  ;  second,  location ;  and  third,  distribution ; 
each  of  which  are  important,  especially  location,  because  the 
principle  of  localising  gates  on  a  mould  whereby  its  metal  will 
be  admitted  with  the  least  possible  commotion,  and  flow 
through  the  mould  to  all  its  nooks  and  crevices,  gives  the 
greatest  satisfaction  in  the  pouring  of  castings.  Therefore, 
gate  wherever  possible  from  the  bottom  of  all  moulds,  for  by 
this,  scabbing  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  with  a  consequently 
better  skinned  casting,  and  the  purest  texture  of  metal 
possible  below  the  surfaces  and  the  top  sides  of  the  castings. 
This  is  specially  the  case  in  the  usual  run  of  general 
machinery  castings  that  are  cast  in  green-sand  moulds. 


DIVISION   II 


L_ 


FIG.  89. 


JOBBING    LOAM    PRACTICE 

LOAM  MOULDING 

IN  introducing  this  subject  of  loam  moulding  it  might  be  as 
well  to  deal  with  some  of  the  adjuncts  ;  not  that  we  can  touch 
on  the  proverbial  hundred  and  one  things  which  more  or  less 
identify  themselves  with  this  particular  class  of  moulding, 
but  merely  to  give  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  one  or  two  of  the  principal 
tools,  such  as  cross  and  spindle, 
shown  at  Figs.  89  and  90.  These 
figures  represent  first  the  cross 
with  boss  containing  the  spindle, 
thus,  X-  In  making  this  cross 
no  special  pattern  need  be  made ; 
any  apology  of  a  boss  giving  from 
1|  ins.  to  2j  ins.  metal  a-side, 
and  a  depth  of  5  ins.  to  8  ins.  will 
do.  Fig.  89  is  a  sectional  eleva- 
tion of  a  cross  boss,  with  spindle  set 
previously  to  casting ;  and  Fig.  90 
is  a  plan  showing  a  mould  as  it 
has  been  cast  and  made  up 
previously,  by  stratagem,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  Length  of 
arms  may  be  left  for  those  concerned  to  determine  for  them- 
selves, and  anything  between  the  figures  mentioned  for  depth 
will  do,  and  we  may  say  for  arms  15  ins.  to  30  ins.  by  4  ins. 
by  2  ins.  Spindles  are  made  from  1J  ins.  to  4  ins.  diameter 
of  malleable  iron,  although  the  latter  size  is  usually  cast 
iron,  and  turned  all  over. 

As  will  be  seen  the  point  of  the  spindle  (Fig.  89)  is  much 
tapered,  and  is  machined  ;  but  in  order  to  get  this  a  correct  fit 


FIG.  90. 


174  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

it  must  be  cast  in  the  mould  as  we  would  a  common  mandrel, 
and  for  this  purpose  we  have  to  paint  or  coat  the  point  in 
question,  which  will  enable  the  spindle  to  leave  the  metal  of 
the  boss  easily  after  it  has  been  cast  and  cooled  in  it.  Many 
are  the  patents  we  have  seen  tried,  and  some  undoubtedly 
were  dealt  with  as  secrets  worth  knowing  ;  but  after  all,  nothing 
can  equal  or  surpass  a  judicious  application  of  common  tar. 
Heat  the  spindle  sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  dry  the  tar  after 
dipping,  then  place  in  the  mould  as  seen  at  Fig.  89,  and  cast 
with  comparatively  dull  metal ;  the  spindle,  if  the  heating  has 
not  been  overdone  but  has  been  sufficient,  when  cooled  in  the 
boss  will  practically  jump  out  of  the  casting,  if  only  aided  with 
a  little  mechanical  force.  When  placing  the  spindle  thus  tarred 
in  the  mould,  see  to  it  that  a  small  piece  of  the  taper  is  outside 
of  the  mould,  which  is  "  open  sand,"  otherwise  it  will  be  found 
that  the  straight  part  has  been  caught  in  the  metal. 

To  the  uninitiated  on  entering  a  foundry  for  the  first  time, 
it  must  seem  somewhat  strange  to  see  a  moulder  building 
cope  or  core,  or  otherwise  engaged  in  his  vocation  using  his 
naked  hands  for  mixing  and  handling  his  loam  as  a  brick- 
layer does  his  mortar  with  a  trowel.  All  conditions  of  weather 
being  alike  for  this,  it  is  no  light  matter  to  break  the  ice  and 
thaw  it  with  a  piece  of  warm  scrap  before  proceeding  to  build, 
"  rough,"  or  "  skin,"  either  cope  or  core.  We  do  not  say 
that  this  is  the  only  way  of  building,  but  certain  it  is  we 
never  could  with  certainty  create  affinity,  as  known  to  loam 
moulders,  between  loam  and  brick  without  rubbing  the  loam 
on  the  latter  with  the  hands  in  a  way  practical  moulders  do. 
The  importance  of  having  absolute  affinity,  and  the  necessity 
of  securing  freedom  from  holes  or  spaces  of  any  kind  caused 
by  the  shrinkage  of  the  loam  joints,  must  always  be  borne  in 
mind.  Gases  will  collect  in  any  such  spaces  that  remain 
and  if  simply  skinned  or  covered  over,  will  tend  to  escape 
by  the  easiest  way,  which  is  through  the  face  of  cope,  or  core, 
as  the  case  may  be.  These  weaknesses  frequently  go  unde- 
tected,- the  blackwash  in  many  cases  being  thoughtlessly 
painted  over  such  cracks,  thus  making  the  mould  appear  all 
right  on  the  surface.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  neglected 
space  behind  the  smooth  blackwashed  surfaces  forms  a  channel 


LOAM  MOULDING  175 

for  gases  in  such  moulds,  which  are  badly  dressed  previously 
to  blackwashing,  and  the  pressure  of  the  metals  not  being 
strong  enough  to  keep  these  weak  parts  in  check,  nasty 
indentations  on  the  castings  are  caused  by  the  gases  referred 
to  seeking  to  get  out  through  the  metal  at  the  time  of  casting. 
Through  long  practice  and  observation  I  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  all  vein-like  or  groovey  surfaces  on  loam 
castings,  as  a  rule,  are  due  to  the  causes  stated  above.  And, 
may  I  add,  the  same  effect  is  produced  in  dry-sand  cast- 
ings from  intermittent  soft  ramming,  or,  perhaps  irregulari- 
ties from  ramming  too  big  courses ;  especially  is  this  the  case 
in  large  dry-sand  core  making.  I  have  seen  those  defects  as 
mischievous  as  a  dumb  scab  in  making  a  bad  casting,  the 
amount  to  be  bored  out  not  being  sufficient  to  clean  the 
barrel  of  the  casting. 

Therefore,  in  the  building  of  loam,  work  for  affinity  between 
brick  and  loam,  especially  wherever  such  constitutes  the  face 
of  the  mould.  The  necessity  for  this  and  for  absolute  density 
of  lojim  joints,  especially  within  half -brick  of  the  face,  give 
ample  reasons  for  using  the  hands  as  referred  to  in  the 
manipulating  of  loam  and  brick,  in  the  art  of  loam  moulding. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  loam  moulding  as  a  branch  of 
the  trade  gives  more  scope  for  intelligence  than  does  either 
green-sand  or  dry-sand,  because,  as  a  rule,  no  pattern  or 
model  is  used  in  its  completeness  for  the  production  of  loam 
castings.  All  loam  work  of  cylindrical  or  spherical  section, 
is  always  best  and  cheapest,  from  every  point  of  view,  when 
"  swept  "  or  "  streakled."1  Some  have  the  idea  that  loam  is 
always  the  costliest  casting  to  produce.  This  is  so  far  true, 
but,  in  many  cases,  where  the  cost  of  castings  is  divided  between 
pattern-shop  and  foundry,  much  could  be  said  in  favour  of 
saving  money  in  the  pattern-shop,  and  spending  a  little  more 
in  the  foundry,  by  making  much  that  is  done  by  sand  in 
loam.  Still,  where  more  than  one  is  wanted,  and  wherever 
practicable,  and  plant  is  suitable,  make  a  pattern  according  to 
the  necessities  of  the  case  and  mould  in  sand.  It  is  also  a 
mistake  to  imagine  that  loam  practice  is  confined  to  the 
heaviest  castings,  either  on  account  of  cost  or  the  limitations  of 
1  As  previously  stated. 


176  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTIOE 

practice.  Hence  it  is  that  some  very  small  castings  are  both 
of  necessity  and  for  economy  made  in  loam.  Loam  may  also 
have  to  be  resorted  to,  because  of  extraordinarily  heavy 
metal,  and  when  a  superior  job  is  wanted,  as  no  material  for 
iron-moulding  is  so  refractory  as  good  loam.  Again,  no 
mould  of  great  importance  would  be  as  safe  in  sand  as  is 
possible  with  loam ;  consequently,  such  castings  as  the  great 
bell  of  Moscow,  whose  weight  is  given  at  423,000  Ibs.,  and 
whose  thickest  part  is  also  given  at  2*3  ins.,  circumference 
near  the  bottom  67  feet,  and  height  21  ft.,  would  undoubtedly 
be  a  loam  mould.  No  mould  of  any  other  material  can  be 
kept  so  long  in  safety,  and  under  normal  conditions  of 
material,  treatment  and  security  from  damp ;  and  with 
neither  frost  nor  an  excessively  moist  atmosphere,  no  one 
need  be  apprehensive  of  danger  at  the  time  of  casting  any  job, 
the  time  for  which  was  unduly  prolonged,  while  closing  and 
preparing  for  casting. 

Although  loam  moulding,  as  has  been  said,  gives  greater 
opportunities  for  intelligent  foundry  practice,  it  is  by  no 
means  the  branch  of  moulding  to  which  apprentices  should 
be  first  put,  the  reason  being  that  nothing  but  sand  can 
cultivate  that  nicety  of  touch  in  handling  the  tools  which 
goes  to  make  a  good  moulder.  Also  the  control  of  sand 
ramming,  according  to  degrees  of  fluid-metal  pressure,  which 
is  so  variable  from  the  bottom  of  a  mould  upwards,  and  the 
variation  of  force  in  the  use  of  the  rammer  on  each  successive 
course  in  the  ramming  up  of  a  job  to  secure  its  safety  from 
scabbing  or  swelling  at  the  time  of  casting,  are,  together  with 
the  best  texture  of  sand  possible  for  venting,  vital  factors  in  the 
production  of  sand-moulded  castings  but  rarely  met  with 
and  indeed  not  necessarily  thought  of  in  loam  moulding. 
Obviously  the  principles  of  moulding  are  not  taught  with 
the  same  force  in  loam  as  in  the  case  of  sand  moulding, 
and  specially  is  this  tlie  case  with  all  classes  of  heavy  green- 
sand  work.  Therefore,  all  apprentices  should  have  a  good 
deal  of  practice  on  the  floor  before  being  put  to  loam — that 
is  to  say,  if  the  best  training  possible  for  making  a  first-class 
jobbing  moulder  be  aimed  at.  All  after  this  are  points  of 
detail  which  can  only  be  mastered  by  long,  thoughtful  and 


MOULDING  A  36-IN.   CYLINDER-LINER  IN  LOAM     177 

observant  practice.  Now,  the  prime  object  of  this  division  on 
loam  moulding  is  to  assist  those  apprentices  or  sand  moulders, 
who  may  be  inclined  for  knowledge  in  this  branch  of  the 
trade.  By  a  study  of  the  foregoing,  and  the  short  series  of 
articles  to  follow,  they  may  equip  themselves  for  the  future, 
should  they  at  any  time  be  called  upon  to  make  a  simple 
piece  of  work  in  loam,  but  what  follows  is  in  no  way  intended 
for  men  of  experience  in  this  class  of  work. 

MOULDING  A  36-IN.   CYLINDER-LINER  IN  LOAM 

A  36-in.  cylinder-liner  (Fig.  91)  is  one  of  the  simplest  jobs  in 
loam,  and  the  following  directions  based  on  the  writer's 
practical  experience  as  a  moulder  should,  although  somewhat 
summarised,  be  quite  sufficient  to  enable  a  sand-moulder  (dry- 
sand)  of  usual  ability  to  make  the  job,  even  if  he  has  no 
experience  at  all  in  loam.  There  would  be  nothing  intricate 
about  the  job  were  it  in  sand,  but  the  idea  of  going  to  a 
"  bed "  and  drawing-off  the  plant  of  the  smallest  of  jobs 
undoubtedly  appears  to  be  a  difficult  problem  to  many  moulders 
who  have  had  no  experience  in  this  class  of  work. 

Let  the  uninitiated  try  to  remember  that  the  first  thing  to 
do  is  to  "  draw-off  "  the  job  and  all  will  come  right.  The 
difference  between  drawing-off  and  using  a  pattern  for  the 
same  operation  in  the  foundry  is  as  that  which  belongs  to 
a  mechanic  in  "  drawing-off "  from  a  drawing  as  against 
finishing  the  same  article  from  a  template. 

Fig.  92  represents  the  bottom  plate  as  drawn  off  before 
proceeding  to  mould.  For  this  figure,  every  straight  line  and 
circumference  is  drawn  to  represent  the  job  in  every  detail  of 
measurement  which  is  thereon  explained.  The  diameters  of 
core  and  cope  are  first  put  down — that  is  to  say,  after  the  four 
cardinal  points  (Fig.  9*2),  which  represent  the  handles,  have 
been  squared,  and  from  which  all  other  attachments  are 
calculated.  A  keen  grasp  of  what  is  here  stated  gives  the 
key  to  all  requirements  in  "  drawing  off,"  not  only  for  this 
job  (Fig.  91),  but  for  loam  moulding  as  a  whole. 

From  A  to  A  (Fig.  92)  is  the  centre  hole  for  the  spindle  to  pass 
through,  and  perhaps  a  convenience  for  clamping  the  spindle- 

F.P.  N 


178 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNPEY  PEACTICE 


FIG.  91. 


cross  as  well.    BtoB  gives  diameter  of  core,  i.e.,  36  ins.    C  to  C 
shows  thickness  of  metal  on  body  of  casting  as  1£  ins.     D  to  D 

is  the  facing  belt  at 
both  ends  of  the 
liner  casting.  E  to 
E  is  clearance  for 
cope  ring,  and  space 
for  parting  inclusive. 
FtoF  shows  breadth 
of  cope  ring,viz.9ins. 
For  the  moment 
let  us  view  all  parts 
from  the  pattern 
shop,  such  as  sweeps 
and  gauges  for  cylin- 
der-liner (Fig.  91). 
Fig.  93  is  the  bot- 
tom bearing  sweep, 
Fig.  94  top  cake 
sweep  for  Fig.  97, 
which  is  the  top  part 
for  this  job.  Figs. 
9oA  and  95B  are  the 
cope  and  core  gauges. 
Fig.  96,  A  shows  the 
core  board  attached 
to  the  spindle,  and  B 
of  the  same  figure 
shows  the  cope  board 
in  a  similar  position. 
The  above  consti- 
tutes all  cost  of  pat- 
tern making  for  this 
liner  casting,  not  a 
very  costly  affair 
indeed. 

In  Fig.  96,  with  the  exception  of  the  top  cake  (Fig.  97),  and 
for  convenience  of  illustrating,  there  is  shown  in  sectional 
elevation  all  connected  with  the  building  of  this  liner  casting  as 


FIG.  92. 


MOULDING  A  36-IN.   CYLINDER-LINEE  IN  LOAM      179 


seen  at  Fig.  91 ;  and  to  those  specially  interested,  doubtless,  a 
study  in  detail  of  Fig.  96  will  be  profitable.  Again,  in  Fig.  96 
is  seen  the  cope  completed  with  its  sweep  or  streakle  board 
attached  to  shear  irons  Z),  the  board  of  course  being 
set  with  the  gauge  stick  (Fig.  95A).  C  C  C  are  the  building 
rings  and  are  interspersed  throughout  according  to  fancy — 
some  would  say  every  four  courses  of  brick,  others  might  say 
eight ;  it  is  all  a  matter  of  opinion,  and,  as  a  rule,  does  not 
matter  much,  provided  the  top  and  bottom  ones  are  placed  right, 
i.e.,  the  bottom  one  for  suitability  of  clamping,  and  the  top  one 
previously  to  building  the  last  course  of  brick. 

On  the  left  half  sectional  elevation  (Fig.  96),  is  likewise  seen 
the  core  representing  a 
finished  job  in  so  far  as 
building,  roughing,  and 
skinning  are  concerned. 
The  board  A  looks  a 
little  slender  and  is  sug- 
gestive of  weakness  and 
is  thus  apt  to  get  out  of 
truth  for  finishing  to  size 
correctly.  Therefore,  care 

must  be  taken  to  prevent  FlG  95B 

this   by   the    most   con- 
veniently safe  appliances   at   hand.     E  (Fig.  96)  is  one  of 
the   cope    handles,    but   a   better   view  of  these  is   seen   in 
Fig.  92.     It  will  be  noticed  that  the  parting  of  the  cope  is 
denoted  by  a  heavy  black  line  (K  and  H,  Fig.  96). 

Now  the  method  of  building  is  to  make  this  core  a  fixture 
to  the  bottom  of  plate  F  (Fig.  96) ;  consequently  after  striking 
the  parting,  and  when  it  becomes  stiffened,  we  proceed  to 
set  the  board  B  and  build  the  cope  on  the  ring  E.  The 
cope  being  built,  "roughened"  and  "skinned"  by  sieved 
loam,  must  have  time  to  stiffen  before  removing  it  to  get 
on  with  the  core.  This  being  done  we  now  set  up  our 
loam  board  A  and  proceed  with  the  core,  as  seen  on  left- 
hand  half  sectional  elevation  (Fig.  96).  A  careful  look  at 
this  figure,  paying  special  attention  to  the  core,  should 
afford  all  the  information  necessary  to  a  practical  man,  and 

N  2 


180 


FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 


further  reference  to  it  would  be  superfluous,  except  to  say  that 
the  three  uppermost  courses  of  brick  should  be  tied  with  wire 
to  keep  the  whole  from  warping  or  twisting  while  drying  in 
the  stove. 

The  practice  of  setting  a  loam  board  is  to  many  a  little 
troublesome,  and  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  man  who 
cannot  do  this  has  no  claim  to  call  himself  a  loam  moulder. 


Half  Sedtional  Elevatio 
of  Co  re 


Half  Sectional  Elevation 
oF  Cope 


FIG.  96. 

Many  good  underhands,  the  bulk  of  whom  were  originally 
sand  moulders,  have  had  but  little,  if  any,  chance  to  acquire 
the  ability  to  set  a  loam  board  which  is  always  done  by 
the  man  responsible  for  the  job.  In  view  of  what  is  stated 
here  we  shall  give  an  object  lesson  on  this  particular  point, 
and  for  this  purpose  we  take  the  top  cake  plate  of  the  cylinder 
liner  (Fig.  97).  Taking  this  top  cake  as  a  study  for  the  job 
in  question  we  will  consider  it  as  having  half  a  dozen  gates, 
two  of  which  may  be  used  as  risers ;  the  rest  will  be  clear 


MOULDING  A  3G-IN.   CYLINDEft-LINEK  IN  LOAM     181 

enough  for  all  practical  purposes.  In  the  setting  of  this  top  cake 
board  (Fig.  97),  and  assuming  it  to  be  a  good  fit,  it  ought  to 
be  kept  clear  a  little,  so  as  to  make  it  enter  easily  when  clos- 
ing on  its  place  shown  in  Fig.  96.  In  Fig.  97  the  plate 
is  shown  arranged  in  position  with  the  cross  C  and  its  spindle, 
thus,  X.  The  shear  iron  D  fixed  to  the  spindle  has  the 
streakle  board  (Fig.  94)  attached  to  it  and  is  held  in  position 
by  the  aid  of  two  or  three  bolts,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Fig.  97  represents  the  gauge  stick  as  setting  and  proving 
the  board  (Fig.  94).  It  will  be  noticed,  on  the  left  of  Fig.  97, 
a  piece  of  clay  B  has  a  brad  fixed  in  it  almost  in  touch  with 
gauge  stick  (Fig.  95A).  Assuming  our  gauge  to  be  on  the 
right  on  the 
side  opposite 
to  the  brad,  and 
endways  against 
the  nipple  K, 
secure  the  brad 
against  moving 
in  any  way,  then 
come  to  the  brad 
with  the  board  FlG  97 

(Fig.  94),  and  the 

brad  being  temporarily  fixed,  it  is  pressed  gently  in  touch 
with  the  gauge  stick,  as  shown  at  Fig.  97,  and  if  the  board 
be  parallel  to  the  plate  and  give  a  level  surface,  such  a 
setting  of  the  board  as  here  described  must  produce  the  best 
workmanship  possible.  It  frequently  happens  that  a  first 
or  second  attempt  is  a  failure,  but  with  the  board  level 
with  the  plate  lift  the  gauge,  hold  it  firm  against  the  spindle 
and  as  firm  against  the  nipple  K  of  the  board,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  97,  and  while  in  this  position  bring  the  brad  again  in 
touch  with  the  other  end  of  the  gauge ;  this  done,  tighten  up 
the  board,  remove  the  gauge,  and  bring  the  board  round 
again  to  pass  by  the  front  of  the  brad  with  an  infinitesimal 
clearance,  and,  if  this  be  secured,  the  board  is  completely  set, 
and  with  the  roughing  of  loam,  and  the  finishing  of  this  top 
cake  (Fig.  97),  the  moulding  of  the  cylinder  liner  (Fig.  91) 
is  so  far  completed. 


182  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 


MOULDING    A    SLIDE    YALYE    CYLINDER    IN    LOAM 

With  this  casting,  as  with  all  other  loam  work,  our  first 
concern  should  be  to  see  and  study  the  drawing,  and  get  it 
well  thought  out  before  starting  the  job  in  any  form  whatever. 
If  working  from  a  drawing,  we  must  be  careful  about  our 
sizes,  and  should  there  be  a  full-sized  drawing  about,  then 
the  right  place  for  it  is  the  foundry  after  the  pattern  shop 
is  done  with  it.  Formerly,  in  the  best-organised  districts, 
all  loam  work  was  accompanied  by  full- sized  drawings  for 
the  foundry  and  all  thicknesses  in  section  painted  black ; 
this  has  now  to  a  very  great  extent  been  displaced  by 
the  "  blue  print,"  so  that  the  moulder's  capacity  for  reading 
drawings  requires  to  be  of  a  more  intelligent  order  in  these 
days  than  was  the  case  or  was  necessary  in  the  days  of  his 
predecessors. 

Assuming  the  "  face  "  (Fig.  98,  A  A  A),  which  consists  of 
the  steam  ports  and  casing,  is  all  one  piece,  and  loam  boards, 
etc.,  are  ready,  we  now  proceed  to  cast  the  plant.  But  before 
starting  to  do  so,  let  us  throw  our  mind's  eye  back  on  Fig.  92 
for  the  guiding  principle  of  this  operation.  This  compre- 
hended, all  else  will  assuredly  follow.  Having  found  our 
greatest  sectional  plan  (Fig.  99),  which  is  through  the 
exhaust  branch  and  centre  of  casing,  we  have  got  the  key  for 
"  drawing  down "  the  bottom  plate  (Fig.  99).  As  will  be 
seen  in  studying  this  figure,  there  is  first  drawn  down  the 
casting  in  full  section,  with  the  usual  clearance  of  1 J  ins.  from 
the  casting,  as  shown  in  Fig.  99  and  previously  explained  by 
Fig.  92 ;  then  add  other  9  ins.  all  round  as  shown,  and  square 
corners  for  convenience  of  handling,  as  also  seen  in  Fig.  99, 
and  by  putting  the  handles  in  their  places,  as  shown  with 
dotted  lines  in  same  figure,  the  bottom  plate  is  completed 
for  the  cylinder  (Fig.  98)  in  so  far  as  the  drawing  down  is 
concerned. 

Again,  Fig.  99  is  drawn  down  first  with  the  intention  of 
showing  the  building  rings,  and  the  two  snugs  A  A  of  this 
figure  are  cast  on  for  the  purpose  of  binding  the  rings  after 


MOULDING  A  SLIDE  VALVE   CYLINDER  IN  LOAM     183 

they  have  found  their  place  on  the  building  (Fig.  98,  C  C  C). 
Again,  in  Fig.  99,  if  after  drawing  the  circles  and  straight 
lines  which  go  to  make  the  plan  or  section  of  this  job,  we  also 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  99 


draw  in  clear  lines  what  is  dotted,  then  fill  up  snugs  A  A,  the 
bottom  or  base  plate  will  be  made  as  it  should  be.  Thus  we 
illustrate  building  rings  and  bottom  plate  in  Fig.  99 ;  indeed, 
this  section  in  its  outside  measurement  is  the  same  for  all 
plates  or  rings  cast  for  this  job,  from  the  base  upwards 


184  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY   PEACTICE 

including  the  top  cake,  not  necessarily  shown.  Therefore  the 
top  cake  is  practically  the  same  for  measurement  as  the 
bottom  plate,  but  a  larger  hole  in  its  centre  will  suit  better,  so 
as  to  give  6  ins.  a-side  for  "stamping"  the  main  core  at 
the  time  of  closing.  Of  course  it  must  be  daubed  and  gated 
similarly  to  Fig.  97,  i.e.,  if  the  metal  drops  through  clear 
space  to  the  bottom  of  the  mould. 

The  building  plant  for  this  cylinder  thus  briefly  detailed 
should,  together  with  what  instructions  were  given  in  con- 
nection with  Fig.  92,  give  the  uninitiated  in  loam  mould- 
ing a  fair  amount  of  knowledge  in  how  to  proceed  with 
one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  loam  moulding. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  selection  of  Fig.  98,  we  are 
taking  a  step  in  advance  of  the  cylinder  liner,  with  which  we 
began,  namely,  Fig.   91,  and  as  we  some- 
what fully  stated  the  preliminaries  of  start- 
ing to  build  loam  work  then,  we  consider 
it  unwise   to  go   over   the   same   ground 
F  again.     Consequently  a  sectional  elevation 

is  given  in  Fig.  98,  which  shows  all 
material  in  section,  and  presents  to  one's  view  a  fair  idea  of 
what  it  is  we  are  trying  to  impart  to  others,  with  as  little 
repetition  as  possible.  Hence  the  avoidance  of  cross,  spindle, 
boards,  etc.,  in  demonstrating  the  method  of  moulding  a  slide 
valve  cylinder  in  loam. 

In  the  first  place  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  entire  cope  is 
represented  as  being  built  fast  to  the  bottom  plate  A  (Fig.  98) ; 
but  before  this  can  be  done  we  had  better  form  the  bearing  B 
with  the  sweep  board  (Fig.  100)  and  build  the  main  core,  other- 
wise we  should  require  to  mould  a  "  false  bearing  "  and  make 
the  core  apart  from  Fig.  98  altogether — not  a  very  commend- 
able way  indeed.  Therefore  we  take  the  sweep  board  (Fig.  100) 
and  form  the  bearing  B  (Fig.  98).  This  being  done  and 
stiffened,  we  fix  up  the  core  board,  not  shown,  get  the  barrel  core 
built  and  finished,  and  then  afterwards  removed  to  a  convenient 
place  of  safety.  We  next  proceed  to  the  building  of  the  cope. 
Building  plate  A  and  cope  rings  C  are  just  the  same,  practic- 
ally, as  before  stated.  But,  in  building  the  bottom  part  of  this 
mould,  build  as  dry  as  is  compatible  with  efficiency,  so  that 


MOULDING  A  SLIDE  VALVE   CYLINDEE  IN  LOAM     185 


FIG.  101. 


drying  the  mould  at  this  part  may  not  be  unduly  prolonged. 
Sufficient  instructions  for  the  building  of  the  main  core  for  the 
cylinder  (Fig.  98)  will  be  found  by  reference  to  Fig.  96  (half- 
sectional  elevation  A),  adding  an  ordinary  core  iron  with  three 
1-in.  eyes  cast  in  it  as  lifters,  and  a  "bearing"  formed,  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  9ft,  B. 

The  sectional  elevation  of  Fig.  98,  as  will  be  seen,  repre- 
sents the  small  cores  all  in  position,  with  the  mould  ready  to 
receive  the  main  core.  The  small  cores  give  much  matter  to 
enlarge  upon,  such  as  the  making  of  irons  for  them,  and  the 
materials  of  which  they  should  be  made,  venting,  and  how 
they  should  be  dried,  etc.,  all  of 
which  are  absolute  essentials  in 
core  making,  but  which  it  is  not 
advisable  to  deal  with  here. 

However,  a  short  description  of 
the  method  of  placing  the  cores  in 
position,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  98, 
may  be  of  advantage.*  And,  to 
begin  with,  let  it  be  observed  that 
D  (Fig.  98)  is  a  vertical  bar  to 
which  the  cores  are  bolted.  The 
first  core  to  be  placed  is  the  casing, 
which  had  better  be  made  quite 
secure  by  bolting  to  D  (Fig.  98) 
as  shown ;  this  done,  we  have  a 

good  foundation  for  the  rett.  The  bottom  port  is  then 
secured,  and  tested  for  clearance  with  gauge  stick  (Fig.  101), 
so  that  no  mistake  may  happen  when  the  main  core  comes 
to  pass  by  it  on  its  way  to  the  bottom  print  B  (Fig.  98) 
when  closing.  The  top  port  A  is  next  placed  in  the  same 
or  similar  fashion.  These  ports  being  thoroughly  secured 
and  tested  in  every  way,  and  this  part  of  the  mould  being 
likewise  cleaned  out,  the  exhaust  core  is  put  in,  which 
completes  the  most  difficult  part  of  coring  a  slide  valve 
cylinder  of  any  dimensions.  Fig.  102  shows  the  exhaust 
core  to  be  cut  in  two  or  three  pieces  (A  and  B),  but 
usually  it  is  cut  at  A  only.  Of  course  this  is  only  necessary 

*  E  E  E  are  the  bolts  which  secure  the  small  cores  to  the  bar  Z>,  Fig.  98. 


FIG.  102. 


186 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 


when  the  cope  is  built  all  in  one  piece.  The  exhaust 
core  being  fixed,  and  whether  made  with  one  or  more  joints 
(as  seen  at  A  and  B  Fig.  102),  to  fake  it  matters  not,  it 
ought  to  be  chapleted  top  and  bottom  where  jointing  takes 
place.  If  this  be  attended  to,  chaplets  in  such  cases  serve  a 
double  purpose  by  keeping  the  core  in  its  place  and  guaran- 
teeing to  a  certain  extent  the  safety  of  any  of  the  faked  parts 
from  lifting  or  starting  in  any  way  at  the  time  of  pouring.  F F 
(Fig.  98)  are  the  vents  secured  and  daubed  with  loam  all  round 
the  joints  of  the  steam  ports  and  exhaust  core  inside  the 
casing  core.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  the  metal 
against  getting  into  the  vents,  and  when  satisfied  as  to  this, 
thoroughly  clear  out  all  vents,  then  pack  the  space  inside  the 
casing  core  A  with  suitable  ashes,  and  insert  tubes  as  shown 
(Fig.  98,  F  F).  This  done,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  vents  are 
collected  to  the  casing  and  discharged  collectively  through  the 
two  vent  tubes  F  F  (Fig.  98). 

MOULDING  A  CYLINDER  COVER  IN  LOAM 

Whether  such  a  cover  as  represented  here  (Fig.  103)  is 
cheapest  and  best,  it  matters  not  for  our  purpose.  Large  or 
small,  the  principle  is  the  same,  except  that  the  plates  A  and 


FIG.  103. 

B  will  require  to  be  thickened  in  proportion  as  the  diameters 
increase,  although  those  plates  are  seldom  cast  above  3  ins. 
thick. 

Figs.  104  and  105  are  the  loam  boards,  which  explain  them- 
selves, but  to  draw  off,  cut,  and  finish  these  boards  requires 
one  with  some  experience  in  loam  work.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  section  of  metal  is  shown  in  Fig.  104,  so  as  to  assist 


MOULDING  A  CYL1NDEE  COYEE  IN  LOAM  187 

in  making  it  clearer  to  those  who  may  not  have  experience 
in  this  class  of  work,  and  before  proceeding  to  use  them  in  the 
foundry  they  had  better  be  proved  by  comparing  the  one  board 
with  the  other,  and  thereby  prevent  any  possible  mistake  hap- 
pening. The  little  nipple  on  the  boards,  thus,  |||,  are  to  steady 
the  size  or  gauge  sticks  when  setting  the  boards,  and  should 
be  used  on  all  loam  moulding  boards.  In  the  sectional  elevation 
(Fig.  103)  we  have  a  fair  representation  of  the  mould  in  its 
completeness  preparatory  to  making  it  ready  for  pouring. 
A  is  the  bottom  plate,  C  is  the  spindle-hole  (rammed  up  with 
sand),  which  may  be  any  size  compatible  with  safety  for  the 
bottom  of  the  casting.  The  fixing  of  the  spindle  with  its  cross 
is  not  shown,  but  must  be  taken  for  granted  to  be  as  usual, 


FIG.  105. 

while  the  hole  should  be  larger  than  shown  at  Fig.  103,  A,  so 
that  the  clamping  of  the  cross  may  be  easily  got  at  if  need  be. 

The  top  plate  B  of  this  figure  shows  two  pouring  gates  E  E, 
and  it  must  also  have  a  3-in.  or  4-in.  hole  in  the  centre  for 
working  the  spindle.  Sometimes  these  covers  are  gated 
round  the  circle,  and  "  flowed "  by  risers  in  the  centre. 
The  latter  way  of  pouring,  however,  in  my  opinion,  creates 
unnecessary  work,  and  I  never  knew  of  anything  going  wrong 
by  gating  in  the  centre  instead. 

This  would  be  quite  a  plain  job  but  for  the  stuffing-box 
flange,  which  necessitates  the  use  of  a  "  cake  "  in  halves  F  F 
(Fig.  103).  This  does  not  present  any  unusual  difficulties,  and 
of  course  there  are  various  ways  of  moulding  it ;  but  what- 
ever way  we  choose,  the  tongue  K  of  the  loam  board  (Fig.  104), 
which  forms  the  flange  of  the  stuffing-box  of  this  cover,  had 
better  be  detachable. 

In  commencing  to  build,  the  spindle  is  put  into  position  as 
shown  at  Figs.  96  and  97,  and  the  first  course  of  brick  is 
merely  bedded  down  on  loam,  leaving  all  joints  except  the 
outside  course  to  be  packed  with  dry  ashes,  as  illustrated  at 


188  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL   FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

G,  Fig.  103.  In  the  building  of  loam  moulding  some  have  a 
strong  inclination  for  all  parts  next  the  casting  to  be  done 
with  loam  brick ;  others  are  not  so  particular,  hard  or  soft  all 
seem  the  same  to  them.  The  latter,  in  my  opinion,  is  by  far 
the  better  practice  for  more  reasons  than  one,  and  specially  is 
it  so  when  surfaces  or  projections  are  considered.  But  for 
vertical  parts  such  as  illustrated  by  cylinder  and  liner  (that  is 
to  say,  the  open  parts),  hard  brick  becomes  the  indispensable 
article  of  construction.  So,  then,  the  first  course  of  brick 
being  laid  for  this  cover  (Fig.  103),  and  the  ashes  packed 
between  them,  our  next  course  should  be  loam  brick,  at  least 
on  what  is  to  form  the  face  of  the  casting,  which  is  the  flange 
of  the  stuffing  box  in  this  particular  case. 

In  forming  or  sweeping  this  flange,  we  should  endeavour  to 
strike  only  the  bottom  and  sides,  which  only  need  to  be  roughed 
and  stiffened.  With  the  flange  thus  prepared  we  now  place  on 
top  of  it,  the  rough  dried  cake  of  loam  in  halves  (Fig.  103,  F), 
and  with  sufficient  clearance  for  the  tongue  K  of  the  board 
(Fig.  104),  to  get  working,  and  at  the  same  time  making  it 
good  for  skinning  as  well.  When  building  this  class  of  work  we 
must  keep  down  as  far  as  possible  wet  joints,  both  for  drying 
and  venting  purposes.  In  Figs.  103  and  112  the  zig-zag  joints 
in  their  structure,  show  in  a  way  the  ashes  placed  between 
the  joints  of  bricks  for  the  double  purpose  of  drying  and 
venting.  These  covers  and  similar  work  are  usually  cast 
without  pitting,  as  known  to  loam  moulders.  Figs.  103  and 
112,  K,  represent  two  bands  of  hoop  iron  encircling  these 
copes,  just  as  malleable  hoops  would  a  barrel,  and  when 
looped  at  both  ends  with  annealed  wire  and  fastened  firmly, 
no  danger  from  pressure  under  normal  conditions  at  the  time 
of  casting  is  possible. 

COEES  AND  COEE  IEONS  FOE  A  SLIDE  VALYE  CYLINDER 

When  describing,  in  the  section  on  "  Moulding  a  Slide 
Valve  C}7linder  in  Loam,"  the  method  of  placing  the  cores, 
only  a  brief  reference  was  made  to  the  materials  used  and  the 
methods  of  making  these  cores  and  core  irons.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  preserve  the  continuity  of  this  subject,  the  making 


COEES,   ETC.,   FOE  A  SLIDE  VALVE   CYLINDEE        189 

of  core  irons  and  cores  for  such  a  cylinder,  will  be  considered 
more  fully,  the  details  given  being  all  that  should  be  required 
for  this  particular  method  of  moulding  the  cylinder  in 
question.  It  must  be  understood  that  what  is  given  here  is 
intended  to  fit  into  the  existing  circumstances  of  an  ordinary 
jobbing  moulding  shop,  and  where  specialisation  in  this 
sort  of  work  exists  other  methods  may  be  used,  and  prove 


FIG.  106. 


FIG.  107. 


superior  practice.  The  core-boxes  are  only  shown  in  sectional 
view  along  with  the  cores,  and  thus  have  not  the  completeness 
desirable,  but  there  should  be  enough  in  the  accompanying 
figures  to  show  how  best  they  may  be  made  in  view  both  of 
good  practice  and  economy,  especially  as  regards  economy  in 
conjunction  with  the  pattern  shop. 

In  Fig.  106  we  have  the  steam  port  core-box  in  section  along 
with  its  core  iron  B.  Fig.  107  shows  the  plan  of  port  core  iron, 
and  the  dots  interspersed  indicate  malleable  irons,  thus  ribbing 


FIG.  108. 


FIG.  109. 


the  core  iron  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  106.  Fig.  108  is  the  sweep 
with  a  check  on  its  right-hand  side  to  keep  it  in  its  place  while 
working  along  the  edge  A  of  this  core-box,  thus  forming  the 
hollow  side  of  the  steam  port  core-box,  and,  the  section  of  core- 
box  being  shown,  no  other  information  is  necessary  for  making 
it.  Fig.  109  shows  lightening  core-box  with  plug  hole  C  for 
venting  and  fettling  purposes.  The  simplest  way  of  making 


190 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOTJNDKY  PEACTICE 


this  box  is  to  cut  two  pieces  in  section  and  line  up  this  to  the 
proper  length,  and  with  a  flat  board  screwed  on  as  seen  in 
section  (Fig.  109)  we  have  a  complete  core-box  with  very  little 
cost.  The  plug-holes  (Fig.  109,  C)  had  better  be  carefully 
marked  on  the  mould  and  core,  and  the  vent  ways  made  good 
and  clear  for  the  escape  of  gases.  By  this  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  plug-vent  cores  C  are  made  separate  ;  this  being  so,  on  the 
placing  of  these  lightening  cores,  the  plugs  find  their  places  in 

connecting  themselves  by 
provision  being  made  for 
vent-tube  arrangements 
through  the  mould.  This 
method  is  easy,  simple,  and 
safe,  and  gives  means  for 
the  rapid  exit  of  gases  from 
the  lightening  cores,  as 
seen  in  sectional  elevation 
(Fig.  98).  These  vents 
are  indispensable  for 
fettling  purposes  as  well. 

Fig.  110,  shows  a 
sectional  plan  of  exhaust 
core  and  core  iron,  and 
represents  the  handiest 
way  of  making  this  core- 
box  and  core,  minus 
the  round  branch,  which 
may  be  made  from  an 
ordinary  "  stripping  " 
piece  or  ordinary  round 
core-box  of  the  required 
diameter.  The  dots  again  in  Fig.  110  represent  malleable 
irons  cast  in  the  frame,  which  is  a  single  iron,  stamped  from 
the  impression  of  the  core-box.  These  malleable  irons  should 
be  zig-zagged,  for  by  doing  so  we  secure  nice  space  for  venting 
and  bonding  the  core.  Also,  these  malleable  irons  must  be 
fixed  in  the  core-iron  mould  previously  to  casting  it,  with  £  in. 
clearance  a-side,  according  to  ordinary  core-iron  practice. 
Further,  we  must  not  forget  to  examine  our  conditions  of 


FIG.  no. 


FIG.  ill. 


MOULDING  A  PISTON  IN  LOAM 


191 


moulding  a  cylinder  with  this  core,  so  that  we  shall  know 
whether  to  make  it  in  one  or  more  parts  as  previously 
explained  in  Fig.  102. 

In  considering  the  section  of  the  casing  core  in  the  box 
(Fig.  Ill)  it  must  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  this  core  is  made 
in  its  box  conveniently.  Sometimes  it  is  built,  and,  instead 
of  being  shown  with  one  core  iron,  as  seen  at  Fig.  Ill,  not 
less  than  four,  if  illustrated,  would  be  seen  when  built  vertic- 
ally ;  and  when  other  things  are  equal  vertical  building  of 
casing  cores  is,  in  our  opinion,  the  best,  no  matter  from  what 
point  of  view  we  take  it. 

But,  in  Fig.  98,  the  face  is  represented  as  being  done  with 
a  cake,  and  this  being  moulded  true  to  the  parting  of  same,  we 


s      c 


Vent 


FIG.  112. 

bolt  casing  core  to  face  plate  and  lower  both  together  into  their 
places,  as  seen  at  Fig.  98,  arrangements  for  which  must  be 
made  at  time  of  building  the  cope.  Needless  to  say,  no  patterns 
are  required  for  making  these  core  irons  except  for  the  steam 
port  (Fig.  107),  and  which  ought  to  be  made  a  little  less  in 
section  to  admit  of  loam  for  clearance  of  core-iron  casting,  or, 
according  to  usual  core-iron  practice,  as  previously  stated. 

MOULDING  A  PISTON  IN  LOAM 

For  the  sake  of  simplifying  matters  we  shall  keep  very 
much  on  the  lines  of  the  cylinder  cover  (Fig.  103)  with  this 
piston  (Fig.  112),  and  the  better  the  former  job  is  understood, 
the  easier  will  the  moulding  of  a  piston  in  loam  be  made. 
Moulding  plates,  top  and  bottom  (Fig.  112,  A  and  B),  of  this 
job  are  practically  the  same  as  the  cylinder  cover  (Fig.  103), 


192 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


less  the  holes  for  venting  and  fettling,  common  to  all  hollow 
piston  castings.  The  pattern  pieces  of  this  job  are  here 
given  in  detail.  Fig.  113  is  the  top  board  for  the  top  cake  ; 
Fig.  114  represents  both  the  bottom  of  the  mould  and  the 
thickness  board  for  putting  sand  to  the  thickness  of  the  metal 
on  the  face  of  the  mould,  thus  preparing  it  for  making  the 
cores  as  seen  on  the  plan,  Fig.  117.  In  Fig.  114  the  hatched 
lines  indicate  thickness  of  metal  which  can  be  cut  away  and 
used  as  the  thickness  board  after  the  bottom  of  the  mould  is 
finished,  if  thought  advisable,  but  the  better  way  is  to  make  a 
board  for  thickness  purposes  alone.  Fig.  115  is  the  plug-hole 
core-box,  which  serves  the  purpose  of  venting  and  fettling  out 
these  cores.  These  plugs  are  usually  fixed  on  the  cores  at  the 
time  of  dressing,  preparatory  to  blackwashing.  So  much  for 


FIG.  113. 


FIG.  114. 


FIG.  115. 


details.  We  pass  on  to  say  that,  after  the  spindle  has  been  fixed 
and  loam  board  (Fig.  114)  set  for  moulding,  there  is  nothing  very 
special  for  consideration  but  venting.  In  regard  to  this  point, 
the  first  course  of  brick  should  be  ash  jointed,  as  shown  in 
Figs.  108  and  112,  but  in  the  next  course,  which  is  next  the 
face  of  the  streakle  board  (Fig.  114)  and  if  the  vent-plug  cores 
must  be  in  the  bottom  (the  most  undesirable  side  by  far  for  the 
moulder),  a  circle  of  ashes  as  shown  in  Fig.  112,  C,  becomes 
imperative,  so  that  when  coring  the  job  the  face  of  the  mould 
may  be  tapped  anywhere  down  through  those  four  cores,  as 
shown  at  section  (Fig.  112),  and  thus  catch  the  plug-vents  at 
any  point.  This  circle  vent  is  led  out  by  branches  three  or 
four  in  number,  or  more  if  required  (see  vent,  Fig.  112). 
Wherever  venting  from  the  bottom  is  imperative,  an  extra 
course  of  bricks  with  ash  joints  becomes  advisable,  thus 
facilitating  the  venting  of  gases  in  these  piston-cores. 
As  is  well  known,  much  danger  is  at  all  times  connected 


MOULDING  A  PISTON  IN  LOAM 


193 


with  the  casting  of  hollow-box  section  pistons,  and  of  course 
the  greatest  trouble  arises  from  the  cores.  Consequently,  we 
cannot  be  too  careful  in  all  that  pertains  thereto — first,  as  to  the 
material  with  which  the  cores  are  made ;  second,  the  necessity 
of  proper  baking  or  drying.  These  cores 
being  enshrouded  in  metal  and  no  escape  for 
the  gases  but  by  the  plug-holes,  it  becomes 
imperative  to  burn  as  much  of  the  vegetable 
matter  out  of  the  cores  as  possible,  and  as  is 
compatible  with  their  safety,  so  that  the 
accumulation  of  gases  from  these  cores  is  brought  to  the 
minimum.  As  has  been  said,  there  is  but  one  way  of  escape 
in  general  practice  for  the  gases  from  the  cores,  viz.,  through 
the  individual  plug-holes.  There  is  no  reason  why  this  should 
be  so,  as  by  a  little  ingenuity  all  cores  can  be  made  inter- 
communicable,  and  by  doing  so,  should  any  mistake  occur 


FIG.  116. 


FIG.  117. 


FIG.  118. 


at  time  of  casting  by  reason  of  one  or  more  plug-vents 
becoming  choked,  the  gases  from  such  a  core  or  cores  would 
escape  through  the  cores  right  and  left  of  the  one  whose  vent 
had  become  choked.  Clearly  we  see  in  such  an  arrangement 
as  this  that  the  danger  of  losing  the  piston  becomes  minimised, 
for  undoubtedly  many  a  good  hollow  piston  casting  has  been 
lost  by  "individual-venting,"  for  which  collective-venting  can 
be  easily  substituted. 

F.P.  o 


194  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEAOTICE 

Fig.  117  shows  the  position  of  the  cores  as  they  are  placed  in 
the  mould  when  closing,  and  Fig.  118  is  a  view  of  the  core 
irons  as  they  may  be  cast.  These  core  irons  are  drawn  off 
on  the  bed  by  square  and  compasses,  and  are  formed  by 
"stamping"  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  moulder. 
However,  the  purpose  of  Fig.  117  is  to  show  the  cores  in 
position,  and  it  also  serves  to  show  the  plan  of  the  top  cake, 
which  in  some  cases  is  a  duplicate  of  the  view  we  have  here, 
plus  whatever  more  may  be  required  for  posting  on  joints. 
Make  the  holes  for  vents,  as  seen  in  Fig.  117,  large  enough  to 
admit  the  plug-cores  to  pass  up  into  the  prints,  as  seen  at  G, 
Fig.  112,  so  thatthe  securing  of  the  vents  by  telescoping  tubes 
into  the  cores,  or  otherwise  if  thought  better,  may  be  the  safer 
effected.  The  same  way  of  telescoping  vent  tubes  must  be 
religiously  attended  to  when  plugs  are  down  through  the 
bottom  of  casting,  as  seen  on  right  hand  of  Fig.  112,  A. 

Three  or  four  gates  H  H  on  the  boss  are  quite  sufficient  for 
running,  and  four  flow  gates  for  risers  S  S  (Fig.  112)  should 
suffice  for  castings  of  this  size,  and  up  to  a  considerably  larger 
diameter. 

LOAM  MOULDING  IN  BOXES  OR  CASINGS 

The  item  of  "pitting"  with  loam  moulding  is  always  of 
serious  concern  in  the  cost  of  production,  and  but  for  this 
much  that  is  done  in  sand  would  be  made  in  loam.  Although, 
in  open  floor  work,  as  shown  with  covers  and  pistons  and  such 
like,  moulds  are  made,  as  seen  in  Figs.  103  and  112,  where 
hooping  K  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  security  of  pouring,  yet 
these  are  not  the  only  exceptions  to  the  rule  of  pitting,  and  its 
consequent  cost  in  loam-moulding.  Much  work  is  also  done 
by  faking  with  plates  and  daubers,  both  for  vertical  and 
horizontal  moulding,  especially  as  it  is  practised  in  the  loam 
"  specials  "  departments  of  pipe  foundries. 

As  has  been  previously  mentioned,  loam  work  is  frequently 
resorted  to  because  of  the  want  of  plant  and  pattern,  but 
where  the  former  may  be  at  hand  without  the  latter,  there  is 
no  reason  why  we  should  not  use  the  plant  and  substitute 
loam-boards  for  a  pattern,  such  as  has  been  advanced  for 
cylinder-covers  and  pistons  in  thia  chapter  on  Loam  Moulding. 


LOAM  MOULDING   IN  BOXES  OR  CASINGS 


195 


Therefore,  in  connection  with  this  method  of  working  we 
show  in  Fig.  119  the  same  piston  as  Fig.  112,  moulded  in  a 
box  in  loam.  The  sectional  elevation  of  this  (Fig.  119)  shows 
everything  in  position,  and  ready  for  the  metal.  A  is  the 
spindle  cross,  but,  before  placing  this  in  position,  our  first 
duty  is  to  ram  a  course  of  sand  in  the  bottom  of  the  box 
as  shown.  This  done,  we  fix  the  cross,  get  the  spindle 
adjusted,  set  our  loam  board  and  build  on  one  course  of 
loam  brick  as  seen,  and  so  on,  according  to  our  experience 
of  this  sort  of  work,  all  of  which  has  been  explained  in  con- 
nection with  Fig.  112.  B  is  the  moulding-box,  C  is  the  top 
cake,  D,  D,  D  are  risers  and  pouring  basins,  and  E,  E  are 


FIG.  119. 

the  clamps  for  binding  the  job  ;  G  is  the  core,  H  H  are  short 
pieces  of  iron  by  which  the  cores  are  suspended  to  the  top 
cake,  a  method  in  most  cases  commendable,  and  which  does 
away  with  chaplets  for  carrying  cores  on  the  bottom  of  mould. 
S  S  are  vent  tubes. 

In  some  cases  we  have  used  a  flask  for  covering  such  a  job 
as  seen  at  Fig.  119,  but  the  trouble  of  catching  all  vents  clear 
of  the  bars  of  the  boxes  in  question  makes  in  most  cases  the 
top  cake  C  (Fig.  119)  the  best  and  cheapest  in  the  end. 

This  short  summary  of  making  a  piston  in  loam  by  using  a 
box  as  a  casing  shows  the  advantage  of  this  method  when 
compared  with  that  illustrated  by  Fig.  112.  By  such  practice 
the  building  gives  less  work,  hooping  with  iron  or  pitting  is 
done  away  with,  and  where  a  repeat  is  wanted  we  have  an 

o  2 


196 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 


approximate  saving  of  75  per  cent,  of  the  cost  in  building 
the  bottom  part  of  this  piston  mould.  Besides,  this  as  a 
mould  is  much  easier  slung  and  handled  in  every  way ;  many 
advantages  are  thus  gained  when  moulding  loam  in  an  ordinary 
moulding-box,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  119.  For  reasons  which 
may  be  obvious  the  vents  are  not  shown  secured,  but  are 
intended  to  be  done  in  the  usual  way  by  first  securing  the 


Sand 


FIG.  120. 

space  with  "  waste,"  then  afterwards  ramming  all  space,  as 
seen  at  H  H  (Fig.  119),  with  rock-sand. 


MOULDING  A  20-IN.   LOCO.    BOILER-FRONT  CRESS-BLOCK 

IN  LOAM. 

In  this  our  second  example  of  moulding  loam  work  in  a 
box,  we  have  an  article  of  great  importance  for  the  boiler- 
maker,  for,  just  as  his  cress  is  free  from  disfiguration  of  scab 
or  swelling,  so  in  like  manner  will  the  contour  and  finish  of 
the  face  of  his  job  be  perfect.  Looking  at  the  plan  and  section 


MOULDING  A  BOILER-FKONT  CEESS-BLOCK  IN  LOAM    197 

of  this  boiler-front  cress  (Figs.  120  and  121),  it  will  at  once 
be  seen  that  for  such  a  plain  casting  the  cost  of  pattern  must 
be  considerable,  i.e.,  when  it  has  all  to  be  put  onto  one  casting, 
as  is  very  frequently  the  case,  especially  in  the  smaller  loco, 
building  shops  of  the  country.  But,  apart  from  this  altogether, 
a  loam  casting,  we  should  think,  is  imperative,  because  the 
exactitude  of  curve  and  surface  for  the  boilermaker  to  cress 
from  cannot  be  equalled  with  either  green-sand  or  dry-sand 
castings — the  former  being  bad  practice  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances  imaginable.  From  an  economical 
point  of  view  this  job,  weighing,  say,  16  cwts.,  is  pre-eminently 
a  desirable  one  for  making  in  loam,  not  only  for  reduction  in 
cost,  but  in  the  saving  of  a  pattern,  and  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that  for  all  parties  and  purposes  loam  moulding 


"V       ....M>.         -  ^9.a/7Q.  VI^..    ..,,£ 

^.C,W:Jv^;i^tZ3 


FIG.  121. 

for  this  class  of  work  is  the  ideal  way  for  economy,  and 
good  workmanship.  In  short,  this  casting  ought  to  be 
produced  for  about  half  of  the  money  required  to  meet 
the  cost  of  a  pattern,  and  were  two  moulded  instead  of  one  (not 
necessarily  of  the  same  dimensions),  the  cost  again  becomes 
considerably  reduced,  thus  showing  a  case  in  which  a  loam 
casting  becomes  the  cheapest  in  the  wages  book  of  the  foundry 
and  pattern  shop  as  well. 

In  viewing  Fig.  121  it  will  be  observed  that  everything 
is  shown  in  section  as  the  job  stands  rammed  up,  before 
parting  it  for  finishing.  Let  it  be  taken  as  matter  of  fact 
that  the  bottom-box  is  on  its  back  ready  for  starting.  This 
admitted,  our  first  move  is  to  get  the  spindle  (not  shown) 
fixed  up  for  proceeding  to  build,  and  afterwards  ram  a  course 
of  sand  A  as  the  foundation  of  the  job.  This  sand  being 
rammed  abnormally  hard  and  of  uniform  thickness,  we 


198  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

bed  in  two  straight  edges,  not  shown,  for  the  purpose  of 
levelling  the  flat  face  of  the  mould  beyond  the  reach  of  the  area 
swept  by  the  circle  Fig.  122,  at  the  round  end  of  the  casting. 
The  whole  surface  being  formed  by  the  aid  of  these  straight- 
edges and  sweeps  (Figs.  122  and  123),  we  next  build  round 


FIG.  122.  FIG.  123. 

the  circle  end  (Fig.  120),  and  form  this  end  of  the  parting 
complete.  At  this  point,  bottom  and  circle  end  being  now 
swept,  these  must  have  time  to  stiffen  or  dry,  to  admit 
of  the  parts  shown  in  Fig.  124,  right  and  left,  along  with 
Fig.  125,  being  placed  into  position  (Fig.  120),  which  completes 
all  outside  measurements  of  the  casting. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  those  two  flat  sticks 
(Fig.  124,  which  it  will  be  rec.ognis.ed  serves  to 
illustrate  both)  are  placed  to  determine  outside 
size  of  casting,  and  also  serve  as  guides  or  rails 
whereon  the  sweeps  (Figs.  122  and  123)  move 
along  when  sweeping  the  bottom  of  mould  which 
forms  the  outside  or  face  of  casting.  Sweep 
(Fig.  122)  being  used  for  faking  round  the  corners 
where  the  other  sweeps  cannot  reach,  the  joint 
guides,  right  and  left  (Fig.  124),  are  held  in 
position  by  a  screw  nail  at  the  circle  end  as 
shown  in  Fig.  120,  and  of  course  weights  are 
applied  at  the  opposite  end  for  a  similar  purpose. 
Those  details  bring  us  to  the  point  of  finishing 

off  the   entire   face  of   the   mould   and   parting, 
FIG.  124.       .          .  .  ...  j 

inclusive   of   everything   pertaining  to   the   drag 

or  bottom  of  the  casting. 

Before  proceeding  further,  we  must  first  satisfy  ourselves 
that  the  drying  of  the  mould  is  firm  and  rigid  ;  afterwards 
put  thickness  of  metal  on  with  sand  by  the  aid  of  the 
sweeps  (Figs.  122  and  123),  in  a  style  similar  to  the  formation 
of  the  bottom  of  the  mould ;  these  two  sweeps  being  used  to 


USE  OF  ASHES  AND  DKY-SAND  IN  LOAM  MOULDING     199 

form  the  face  of  the  mould,  the  thickness  of  metal  is  formed 

by  reducing  them  to  the  dotted  lines.     A  reference  at  this 

point  to  Fig.  121  shows  in  section  the  thickness  of  metal  formed 

by    sand.      Having    now    got    our 

thickness  formed  and  slightly  coated 

with  parting  sand,    our   makeshift 

pattern  is  complete.     Next,  put  in 

sand   for  hangers  or  gagers,   then  FIG.  125. 

put  on  the   top  part  or  flask  and 

ram  up  in  the  usual  way,  thus  showing  the  job  as  it  stands  at 

Fig.  121. 

Briefly,  we  now  proceed  to  part  the  job  and  finish.  The 
thickness  sand  C  (Fig.  121)  being  removed,  the  design,  as 
shown  here  also,  can  easily  be  "  faked "  without  the  aid  of 
core-boxes  by  the  moulder,  and,  if  need  be,  without  any  aid 
from  the  pattern  shop  at  all. 

THE  USE  OF   ASHES  AND  DEY-SAND  IN  LOAM  MOULDING. 

There  are  men  who  are  good  and  successful  moulders  who  do 
riot  in  any  way  recognise  the  utility  of  using  dry  ashes  in 
building  loam  work.  Such  men  stoutly  advocate  that  to  apply 
dry  ashes,  as  has  been  indicated  in  this  section,  tends  to 
hinder  rather  than  help  the  drying  of  such  work  in  loam. 
They  assert  that  the  steam  generated  from  the  adjacent  wet 
loam  joints  of  a  mould  condenses  amongst  the  ashes  and  so 
retards  the  drying.  When,  however,  the  mould  becomes 
thoroughly  warm  throughout,  there  is  little  likelihood  of  any 
local  condensation  of  moisture  among  the  ashes  in  any 
part  of  the  mould,  and  the  speed  of  drying  then  depends 
upon  the  temperature  to  which  the  mould  is  brought  in  the 
stove. 

It  thus  becomes  a  question  of  quantity,  and,  as  an  example, 
suppose  that  we  have  two  brick  structures,  each  measuring 
1  cubic  yard — one  being  solidly  built  of  brick  and  loam 
throughout,  and  the  other  with  loam  joints  on  its  outside 
courses  only,  the  inside  joints  being  made  with  ashes.  Now, 
in  the  solidly  built  cube  referred  to,  we  shall  have  approxi- 
mately double  the  loam  used  when  compared  with  the  second 


200  FACTS   ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 

cube,  whose  inside  joints  are  all  made  with  dry-ashes.  It 
thus  seems  paradoxical  for  anyone  to  assert  that  in  the  drying 
of  those  two  cubes  the  one  containing  the  greatest  percentage 
of  water,  from  its  wet  loam  joints  throughout,  should  be  the 
one  to  dry  first,  as  against  the  one  with  its  dry  ash  joints  in 
the  centre. 

However,  such  is  held  to  be  the  case  by  many  good  and 
successful  men  in  the  foundry,  and  it  is  quite  in  keeping  with 
"  cores  feeding  castings,"  "  down  pressure  on  the  tops  of  cores 
when  metal  passes  over  them,"  etc.,  etc.  But,  to  keep  more 
to  the  question  of  materials  for  building  loam-work,  we  are 
specially  brought  face  to  face  with  these  two  dry  materials,  viz., 
ashes  and  dry-sand,  which  are  largely  used  by  some  when 
building  integral  parts  of  loam  moulding ;  others  do  not 
recognise  them  at  all.  This  we  think  a  mistake,  for  reasons 
previously  given.  Each  of  these,  i.e.,  dry-sand  and  ashes,  have 
their  own  particular  function  to  perform  in  the  foundry ;  but 
in  this  case  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  venting  and  drying.  Sand  is 
most  economical  both  in  its  use  for  building  and  that  of  empty- 
ing or  taking  a  casting  out  of  the  pit,  or  from  elsewhere,  after 
it  has  been  cast,  because  ashes,  on  the  other  hand,  become  con- 
taminated with  the  debris  of  the  mould,  and  so  add  considerably 
to  the  cost  of  lifting,  after  having  cast,  this  class  of  castings — a 
point  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  Therefore,  as  a  result, 
ashes,  in  the  author's  opinion,  should  be  used  with  discretion 
for  building  loam-work,  unless  venting  in  such  work  as  we  have 
described  is  a  necessity ;  all  the  same,  where  venting  and  drying 
are  equally  necessitous  use  ashes  as  suggested.  Again,  as  to 
which  is  best  and  without  considering  the  economical  side  of 
the  question  at  all,  we  unhesitatingly  say  dry-ashes,  since  they 
are  practically  unaltered  in  volume  by  the  absorption  of  water. 
The  proportion  of  shrinkage  produceable  by  watering  dry-sand 
to  a  moist  consistency  for  moulding  is  a  point  in  many  ways 
worthy  of  the  serious  consideration  of  moulders.  Dry-sand 
must  always  be  used  with  discrimination.  When  dampness, 
or,  worse  still,  water  is  encountered  at  the  bottom  of  a  hole 
that  is  being  dug  in  the  floor  of  a  foundry,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
get  out  the  wet  sand  quickly  and  hurriedly  replace  it  by  dry  - 
sand  without  having  first  stopped  the  entry  of  the  water. 


USE  OF  ASHES  AND  BEY-SAND  IN  LOAM  MOULDING    201 

Serious  losses  often  happen  in  this  way,  as  many  moulders 
know  from  experience,  since  the  water  ultimately  soaks  into 
the  dry-sand  causing  it  to  contract,  and,  assuming  a  mould  to 
be  rammed  up  under  such  unfavourable  conditions,  the  pressure 
of  the  metal  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould  and  at  the  time  of 
casting  tells  its  own  tale  by  the  casting  showing  ugly  strains 
on  the  bottom  when  lifted,  i.e.,  if  it  has  not  finished  itself 
previously  by  making  for  the  roof  at  the  time  of  pouring. 
This  is  the  case  with  all  earthy  substances  that  are  abnormally 
dry,  and  nothing  but  water  or  liquid  of  some  kind  will,  in 
the  first  place,  bring  the  greatest  density.  And,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  dry-sand  in  a  foundry  can  never  be  reckoned  as 
a  fixed  quantity,  as  absorption  of  moisture  will  in  some 
degree  cause  it  to  shrink  or  contract. 

On  the  other  hand,  absolutely  dry-ashes  is  the  friend  of  the 
moulder  in  damp  pits  and  similar  places.  It  is  common 
practice,  when  dampness  may  be  considered  dangerous,  to 
seek  to  form  a  channel  by  which  it  becomes  located,  and 
if  possible  connected  to  some  way  of  escape.  But  if  an 
ooze  of  water,  such  as  is  common  to  most  foundries  when 
working  at  abnormal  depths  in  the  floor,  is  likely  to  be  a  little 
troublesome,  localise  such  as  much  as  possible  by  forming  a 
channel  or  hole.  Get  to  know  the  volume  of  water  collected 
in  such  space  within  a  given  time,  and  knowing  the  number 
of  days  or  hours  you  have  for  ramming  the  job  and  casting  it, 
you  thus  arrive  at  the  size  which  the  hole  should  be  dug  to 
contain  the  dry  ashes,  which  absorbs  the  water  practically, 
bulk  for  bulk,  before  it  can  get  dangerously  near  the  mould 
at  all.  Truly  this  material,  dry-ashes,  has  many  functions  to 
perform  in  the  foundry — first,  in  its  capability  of  venting; 
second,  in  facilitating  shrinkage :  and  third,  in  absorbing 
abnormal  damp,  the  foe  of  the  foundry,  which  has  done  so 
much  mischief  both  to  life  and  property  wheresoever  the 
art  of  founding  is  known. 

Lastly,  and  most  important  of  all,  if  a  mould  is  known  to 
be  in  a  critical  state  from  damp,  make  sure  and  dig  a  hole  or 
trench,  as  the  case  may  be,  adjacent  to  the  affected  area  of 
the  mould,  and  at  a  depth  sufficiently  below  the  deepest  part 
of  it.  Thereafter  form  a  coke  bed  of  sufficient  section  so  as 


202  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE. 

to  enable  the  water  in  the  damp  area  of  the  mould  to  percolate 
into  it ;  and  the  water  thus  secured  will  flow  into  a  temporary 
well  or  "sump"  prepared  in  the  process  of  ramming  up  the 
trench.  This  method  of  dealing  with  damp  floors  has,  in  the 
experience  of  the  Author,  saved  what  otherwise  might  have 
meant  incalculable  loss. 


DIVISION  III 
MOULDING  AND  CASTING  THE  FINER  METALS 

STARTING  A  SMALL   BRASS  FOUNDRY 

MACHINERY  iron  castings  in  general  are  accompanied  by  a 
greater  or  less  percentage  of  brass  castings,  and  these,  accord- 
ing to  location,  are  not  always  easily  and  cheaply  got. 
Therefore  convenience  and  economy  is  generally  best  secured 
by  working  a  small  brass  foundry,  or  department,  as  an 
adjunct  to  an  iron  foundry  situated  in  a  country  district. 
Besides,  what  suits  in  a  general  way  the  circumstances  and 
situation  referred  to,  will,  without  doubt,  adapt  itself  in  a  quiet 
and  unpretentious  way  to  the  jobbing  work  of  a  brass  foundry  in 
city  life  as  well.  If  there  be  not  much  capital  to  account  for, 
the  chances  are  that  such  small  brass  foundries  will  give  a 
better  return  for  whatever  money  may  be  invested,  with  work 
at  a  fair  remuneration,  than  many  of  the  more  up-to-date 
foundries.  In  short,  there  has  always  been,  and  will  very 
likely  continue  to  be,  a  place  in  mechanics  for  the  jobbing 
brass  founder.  Hence,  our  purpose  for  the  present  is  to  deal 
more  particularly  with  country  districts  where  the  local  iron 
founder  has  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  brass  casting,  perhaps, 
in  the  smithy  forge  with  an  improvised  fire  or  furnace,  with 
the  result  that  the  opportunities  for  doing  business  to  profit 
is  neither  practised  nor  developed. 

On  the  lines  suggested  here,  the  outlay  necessary  to  start  a 
jobbing  shop,  or  add  a  brass  department  to  an  already  existing 
foundry,  is  not  very  great.  All  that  is  required  is  a  suitable 
building  of  brick  or  iron,  or  a  corner  in  the  iron  foundry,  in 
which  to  put  up  a  couple  of  good  crucible  furnaces,  as  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  126  and  127,  a  space  for  the  accommodation  of 
sand  and  fuel,  of  which  only  a  few  tons  are  needed,  a  few  boxes, 
and  a  tub  such  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  128.  Besides  these 


204 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


there  is  only  the  metal  and  a  few  other  accessories  to  be 
considered  before  the  equipment  of  a  small  brass  foundry  can 
be  said  to  be,  nominally,  complete.  As  to  the  floor  'space 
necessary,  a  shop  14  ft.  square  will  be  sufficiently  large  as  a 
start  for  the  work  common  to  local  jobbings.  It  is  desirable  in 
arranging  for  this  to  select  a  spot  contiguous  to  a  chimney, 
as  otherwise  an  improvised  stack  about  20  ft.  high  in  brick  or 
iron  will  be  required.  With  regard  to  the  plant  mentioned 
above  (the  question  of  forced  blast  we  do  not  entertain) 

the      sketches     of 

B  B  the  furnaces  (Figs. 

126  and  127)  will 
be  sufficient  to 
afford  all  the  in- 
formation needed 
by  a  practical 
builder.  It  may 
be  added,  however, 
that  the  interior  of 
the  furnaces,  and 
the  flues  immedi- 
ately leading  into 
the  chimney  should 
be  of  specially 
selected  firebrick. 
As  to  the  moulding- 
tub  (Fig.  128),  the 
sectional  dimen- 
sions are  given :  the  length  will  be  determined,  of  course,  by 
the  space  available.  Coming  to  the  moulding-boxes,  their  size 
will  depend  on  the  class  of  work  intended  to  be  done.  How- 
ever, three  favourite  sizes  can  be  recommended  for  ordinary 
work,  say,  10  ins.  by  10  ins.  by  4  ins.;  18  ins.  by  12  ins.  by 
5  ins.;  and  15  ins.  by  11  ins.  by  5  ins.  The  constructional 
details  are  described  in  "  Starting  a  Small  Iron  Foundry  "  (p.  1). 
The  foregoing  is  but  a  rough  synopsis  of  location,  building,  and 
materials  required  for  a  small  brass  foundry. 

Furnaces. — It  is  a  truism  to  say  that  the  furnaces  for  melt- 
ing brass  are  in  many  cases  of  a  very  primitive  type;  some  of 


FIG.  126. 


STARTING  A  SMALL  BEASS  FOUNDRY 


205 


them  are  mere  holes  in  the  ground.  The  furnaces  shown  in 
the  accompanying  sketches,  while  not  of  the  most  up-to-date 
pattern,  are,  if  built  according  to  instructions,  quite  satisfac- 
tory, both  as  to  time  and  economy  of  melting,  under  normal 
conditions  of  working.  During  recent  years  oil-fired  furnaces 
have  come  into  vogue,  and  some  brass  founders  consider  them 
suitable  for  smaller  foundries.  Before,  however,  they  can 
be  recommended  unreservedly,  the  would-be  brass  founder 


^^^ 

FIG.  127. 

should  consider  well  the  relative  facilities  in  his  district  for 
obtaining  the  fuels  required  for  the  competing  systems,  and  if 
forced  draught  be  imperative  the  relative  cost  of  this  and  the 
chimney  has  got  to  be  considered. 

Figs.  126  and  127  represent  the  fires  in  section,  and  show  the 
relative  positions  of  the  fire-bars,  flues,  and  covers,  with  the 
crucibles  in  place.  The  dimensions  given  are  3  ft.  6  ins.  deep 
from  the  cover  to  the  fire-box,  each  furnace  being  18  ins.  square 
Should  there  be  reason  to  suppose  that  the  fires  may  at  any 
time  be  used  for  steel  melting,  4  ins.  or  5  ins.  more  space  around 


206  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

the  crucible  should  be  provided  for  in  order  to  admit  of 
gannister  being  rammed  round  the  furnace,  with  a  view  of 
facilitating  economical  repairs.  Personally,  we  favour  the 
use  of  the  gannister  lining  even  in  a  furnace  intended  for  brass. 
A  good  deal  of  time  and  money  is  wasted  in  pulling  out  fire- 
brick linings  for  repairs,  when  the  process  of  ramming  the 
"  hole  "  with  gannister  4  ins.  thick  would  obviate  much  of  the 
loss  arising  from  frequent  rebuilding.  Bound  the  top  of  the 
bricks  a  coping  of  cast  iron  A  (Figs.  126  and  127),  which  should 
be  2  ins.  thick,  is  imperative.  This  coping  secures  everything 
and  provides  a  top  to  the  furnace  suitable  for  the  reception  of 
the  covers  B  (Figs.  126  and  127),  which  ought  to  be  level  with 

the  floor.  The  covers  may 
.  .  have  cast  -  iron  frames,  with 

clay  -  tile    centres    and    bow 


ff  handles,  such  as  are  used  for 
moulding-boxes ;  or  they  may 
be  of  4-in.  fire-clay  tiles, 
bonded  with  wrought  iron. 

—24-'-  — 4[  The  bearers  of  the  fire-bars  C 

should  be  built  into  the  walls 
of  the  furnace  about  3  ft.  or 
4  ft.  above  the  level  of  the 

furnace  pit  floor.  The  walls  should  be  18  ins.  thick  and  a 
similar  space  between  each  furnace,  the  ashpit  being  formed 
below  (see  Figs.  126  and  127). 

In  laying  out  the  cellar  or  ashpit,  plenty  of  room  should  be 
allowed  ;  there  is  nothing  more  annoying  than  to  find,  after 
the  furnaces  have  been  built,  that  there  is  not  enough  room  in 
the  ashpit  for  working.  Fig.  126,  D,  shows  the  vent  holes  which 
connect  with  the  general  flue,  not  illustrated.  The  advantage 
of  these  is  not  commensurate  with  the  expense  involved,  and 
they  are  on  that  account  scarcely  commendable.  Again,  at 
the  same  figure  E  E  represent  the  other  vents  or  flues  which 
lead  direct  to  the  chimney  at  the  top  under  the  cover  B  (Figs. 
126  and  127).  These  vent  holes  are  usually  regulated  by  means 
of  a  brick  which  retards  or  accelerates  melting  of  the  metal, 
so  that  the  pot  is  ready  for  pouring  at  the  proper  time.  The 
accessory  equipment  of  a  furnace  consists  of  crucible  tongs, 


STAETING  A   SMALL   BEASS  FOUNDEY  207 

flat  tongs,  a  poker,  a  crucible  charger,  a  shovel,  and  a  riddle. 
These  are  all  too  well  known  to  admit  of  space  being  taken  up 
with  illustrations  or  figures  of  any  kind ;  and  here  let  it  be 
said,  that  after  pouring,  a  new  pot  should  be  put  back  into 
the  furnace  to  cool  down  slowly  with  the  fire,  for  thereby  the 
life  of  the  crucible  will  be  prolonged. 

Wastage  in  Melting. — The  wastage  in  melting  brass  is 
always  a  matter  calling  for  careful  attention.  It  is  necessary 
to  avoid  melting  with  too  great  heat  in  order  to  obviate 
"  burning  "  the  metal,  which  is  a  common  cause  of  waste  in 
brass  foundries,  and  more  especially  is  this  the  case  where  the 
reverberatory  furnace  is  not  in  use.  Some  brass  founders  use 
ordinary  "  splint  "  or  forge  coal,  which  practice  was  common 
enough  in  the  author's  early  experience ;  but  of  recent  year 
cheap  cokes  have  come  into  the  market,  and  nowadays  it  is 
more  economical  and  in  every  way  better  to  use  these.  It  is 
not  good  practice  to  melt  brass  with  good  foundry  coke, 
because  its  calorific  value  is  higher  than  that  required  for  the 
metal,  and  its  use  is  needlessly  sore  on  the  crucible,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  fact  that  there  is  always  a  possible  chance  of 
unnecessary  loss  of  spelter  due  to  too  high  a  temperature. 
Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  (spelter)  to  which  vary- 
ing quantities  of  tin  and  lead  are  sometimes  added.  Copper 
melts  at  a  temperature  approaching  1,100°  C.,  which  is 
more  than  double  that  of  the  melting  points  of  either  zinc, 
tin  or  lead.  The  temperature  required  in  melting  copper  is, 
however,  some  two  or  three  hundred  degrees  lower  than  that 
necessary  in  melting  iron,  and  it  is  thus  obvious  that  to 
use  foundry  coke  for  melting  brass  means  employing  an 
abnormally  high  temperature,  and  hence  unnecessary  waste. 

In  addition  to  wastage  in  melting,  there  is  also  wastage  of 
metal  in  pouring.  When  the  crucible  is  taken  from  the  furnace, 
the  skimming  or  cleaning  of  the  metal  should  be  done  at  the 
"skimmings  box,"  in  which  all  refuse  from  the  working  of 
the  pots  is  collected  and  afterwards  dealt  with.  It  is  here  that 
experience  manifests  itself  in  preparing  the  metal  for  pouring 
the  moulds,  as  much  spelter  may  be  unduly  wasted  by 
unnecessary  puddling  and  skimming  before  casting.  Also 
after  pouring,  whatever  sand  may  have  been  in  touch  with 


208  FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

a  possible  splutter  should  be  fine  riddled  or  sieved  preparatory 
to  hand  washing,  a  process  common  in  small  jobbing  shops. 
These  points  of  economy  mean  money  in  proportion  as  they 
are  practised,  thus  keeping  the  wastage  of  metal  in  a  brass 
foundry  producing  jobbing  castings,  at  the  lowest  possible  point. 
Moulding. — One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  an  iron  moulder 
finds  when  he  starts  upon  brass  work,  is  connected  with 
the  gates,  the  position  of  which  on  the  casting  does  not  follow 
the  rule  for  iron  founding,  either  in  location  or  volume. 
Brass  oxidises  more  rapidly  than  iron,  and  when  oxide  is 
formed  in  the  filling  of  a  mould,  it  has  a  knack  of  finding  its 
way  into  some  portion  of  the  casting  where  it  is  altogether  out 
of  place,  and  of  causing  a  bad  casting.  Consequently,  it 
follows  that  the  mould  must  be  poured  rapidly,  and  in  order 
to  ensure  this,  the  brass  must  be  run  about  three  times 
quicker  than  iron.  By  this  we  see  that  the  proper  position  of 
the  casting  has  much  to  do  with  the  successful  working  of  a 
brass  foundry,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  heavy 
brass.  It  does  not  require  much  imagination  to  see  that 
quick  pouring  will  necessitate  good  and  quick  venting,  and  to 
vent  as  one  would  do  for  iron,  would  involve  risk  of  accident  or 
mishap,  because  iron  being  poured  so  much  slower  than  brass 
allows  the  vents  to  burn  off  their  accumulating  gases  as  fast 
as  the  mould  is  filled.  The  result  of  this  is,  that  the  gases  in 
many  cases  are  practically  expelled  before  the  mould  is  filled, 
whereas  with  brass  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the 
mould  is  full  before  the  vents  are  ignited.  Practical  moulders 
know  that  a  "blow"  and  "sputter"  may  accompany  the 
pouring  of  iron,  and  with  a  good  deal  of  commotion  too,  and 
yet  the  casting  may  turn  out  all  right  because  the  gases  get 
away,  as  a  rule,  while  this  commotion  is  going  on,  and  there- 
after the  metal  falls  back  quietly  into  the  mould.  But  when 
the  same  kind  of  behaviour  happens  with  brass,  it  is  pretty 
safe  to  prophecy  that  the  casting  will  not  be  a  good  one.  On 
the  other  hand,  brass,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  its  surface 
when  in  the  crucible  is  heavily  laden  with  oxide,  will  penetrate 
a  finer  design  and  thinner  section  of  metal  than  cast  iron, 
which,  under  normal  conditions  of  fluidity,  seldom  shows  more 
than  the  oxide  line  clinging  to  the  ladle  previously  to  pouring. 


STARTING  A  SMALL  BRASS  FOUNDRY  209 

Temperatures. — There  is  no  doubt  that  temperature  is  a 
most  important  factor  in  the  production  of  sound  and  homo- 
geneous brass  castings,  as  indeed  it  is  in  all  processes  in  the 
different  branches  of  founding.  Although  all  metals  in  their 
behaviour  during  the  fluid  state  have  a  strong  relationship  to 
one  another,  each  has  its  own  peculiar  characteristic.  The 
temperature  at  which  brass  may  be  poured  with  satisfactory 
results  in  various  classes  of  work  cannot  be  determined,  except 
by  that  experience  which  is  born  of  long  practice.  In  this 
matter  the  general  conditions  must  be  considered,  such  as 
mixture  of  metal,  condition  of  mould,  and  the  volume  of 
metal  in  section,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  factors  in  determining 
at  what  temperature  to  pour. 

-Again,  as  to  the  constituents  of  brass,  it  should  be  pointed 
out  that  these  have  their  own  particular  melting  points,  and 
it  is  at  times  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  component  parts 
of  the  alloys  are  strictly  correct.  The  melting  point  of  copper 
is  1083°  C. ;  zinc  is  420°  C. ;  lead,  which  is  not  often  used 
and  alloys  badly  with  other  metals,  is  327°  C.  ;  and 
lower  than  all,  tin  melts  at  232°  C.  These  differences  are 
enough  to  create  difficulties  in  themselves,  and  when  we 
come  to  the  specific  gravities  we  find  similar  divergencies ; 
copper  is  approximately  given  as  8*96,  zinc  7*10,  tin  7'29,  and 
lead  11 '45.  Lead  does  not  alloy  with  the  copper  and  zinc  in 
brass,  but  is  present  in  the  casting  in  the  form  of  globules  or 
streaks.  This  property  of  lead  combined  with  its  low  melting 
point  and  high  density  causes  it  to  have  a  great  tendency  to 
segregate,  i.e.,  to  be  unevenly  distributed  through  the  casting. 

It  is  a  matter  for  no  surprise,  therefore,  that  even  the  most 
experienced  meet  with  disappointments  when  the  relative 
parts  of  the  various  components  are  altered  from  well-known 
and  established  formulae.  Good  gunmetal,  in  which  there  is  a 
large  percentage  of  copper,  is  salmon-red  at  the  pouring  point, 
and  has  a  calm  and  placid  surface  ;  and  from  this  standard 
working  downwards  the  percentage  of  spelter  increases,  and 
with  the  higher  percentages  of  spelter  begins  the  erratic  white 
flame  on  the  surface  of  the  metal.  This  increase  of  spelter 
brings  us  from  the  gunmetal,  into  the  yellow  metal  alloys,  when 
"  stirring  the  metal  up  "  to  the  moment  of  pouring  becomes 

F.P.  p 


210 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 


imperative ;  and  by  so  doing,  the  moulder  does  all  that  can 
reasonably  be  done  to  maintain  in  a  well-mixed  condition  the 
metals  which  go  to  make  up  the  brass.  When  using  lead  it  is 
safer  to  melt  it  by  itself  before  applying  it  to  the  fluid  contents 
of  any  crucible,  and  keep  stirring  well  in  order  that  it  may  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  alloy  of  which  it  is  usually  an 
insignificant  but  powerful  constituent.  The  following  are  a 
few  of  many  mixtures  that  could  be  given,1  and  although 
limited,  these  should  accommodate  themselves  in  a  general  way 
to  the  wants  of  a  jobbing  brass  founder.  Of  course,  brass 
moulders,  as  a  rule,  specialise  in  this  department  for  them- 
selves ;  but  in  connection  with  this  it  may  be  said  in  passing 
that,  although  it  is  economy  to  use  as  much  as  possible,  it  is 
never  safe  to  go  above  45  of  spelter  to  50  of  copper. 


Brass  mixtures. 

Copper. 

Tin. 

Spelter. 

Lead. 

|Soft 

32 

2 

_ 

_ 

Gun  metal  -j  Hard 

16 

2 

— 

— 

(  Admiralty 

44 

5 

2 

— 

Yellow  metal    . 

35 

1 

15 

— 

Brazing  solder  .  7 

20 

— 

24 

— 

Common  brsis.-  . 

28 



14 

1 

Pot  metal 

16 

— 

— 

5 

Patent  metal     .  v         -     - 

32 

2 



— 

Best  gun  metal 

16 

2 

— 

— 

Bell  metal 

16 

4 

— 

BABBIT'S 

METAL. 

BABBIT'S  METAL, 

No.  2. 

Lead 
Antimony 

.         .     48 
.       9 

Copper  . 
Antimony 
Tin 

.     10 
5 
.     14 

"  Draw." — Brass  has  a  greater  tendency  to  "  draw  "  and 
form  cavities  than  iron,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  with 
some  moulders  to  cover  the  risers  and  pouring  head 
with  sand  immediately  after  the  metal  has  been  poured, 
ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  casting,  but  the 
advantage  is  more  imaginary  than  real.  A  better  result 
would,  probably,  be  obtained  by  increasing  the  weight  or 
altering  the  positions  of  the  heads,  or  by  using  a  carbonaceous 
1  The  numbers  given  in  the  table  are  proportional  parts,  not  percentages. 


STARTING  A  SMALL  BRASS  FOUNDRY 


211 


material  instead  of  sand  as  a  covering.  All  the  same,  sand 
must  be  applied  in  "  cover  ing-  up "  during  the  process  of 
casting ;  comfort  and  other  conveniences  demand  it  so.  The 
application  of  a  feeding-rod  after  a  brass  mould  is  cast  in 
general  practice  is  not  good,  and  where  feeding  is  positively 
necessary  to  secure  the  densifying  of  any  part  of  a  brass 
casting,  a  crucible  with  suitable  hot  metal,  and  poured  in  on 
this  particular  spot,  will  in  most  cases  do  more  good  than  is 
possible  by  the  action  of  any  feeding-rod. 
When  applying  the  crucible  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding,  give  the  metal  a  good  drop  so  that  it 
will  cut  its  way  into  the  casting;  thereafter  give 
what  more  it  requires  gently,  and  if  the  gate  be 
right,  it  should  feed  itself  automatically  and 
give  with  perfect  safety  a  sound  and  solid 
casting. 

Position  of  Casting. — It  is  not  given  to  all 
moulders  alike  to  know  how  much  "  position 
of  casting "  has  to  do  with  the  successful 
working  or  founding  of  metals.  While  vertical 
pouring  may  be  the  ideal  of  clean  and  solid 
castings  in  iron,  the  same  practice,  if  applied 
to  brass,  in  many  cases  would  have  quite  an 
opposite  effect,  as  the  following  will  show  :— 

More  than  twenty  years  ago  a  certain  brass 
casting  was  by  special  request  ordered  to  be  cast 
on  end.   A  rough  idea  of  the  casting  (shown  in 
two  positions  in  Figs.  129  and  130)  is  given  by 
stating  that  its  principal  dimensions  were  4  ft. 
by  2  ft.,  with  two  or  three  side  attachments,  and  six  or  seven 
cores  distributed  about  the  body  of  the  casting  (not  shown  in 
the  figures  referred  to),  and  that  its  weight  was  about  1, 200  Ibs. 

Doubts  were  at  once  expressed  when  discussing  the  "  vertical 
position  "  in  which  this  job  was  ordered  to  be  cast,  but  ulti- 
mately it  was  agreed  to  cast  it  on  the  "  declivity  position." 
All  went  well  both  with  moulding  and  pouring  the  metal  into 
the  mould,  but  when  the  casting  was  turned  out  next  morning, 
its  top  end  was  one  of  the  most  unsightly  forms  of  metal 
supposed  to  be  in  the  shape  of  a  casting  imaginable. 

p  2 


FIG.  129. 


212  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

Evidently,  although  it  was  a  dry- sand  mould,  the  flow  of 
the  metal  to  the  bottom  and  its  return  to  the  top  end  during 
the  process  of  pouring  was  more  than  the  alloy  in  question 
was  capable  of  doing  rightly,  as  the  accumulation  of  oxide  at 
the  top  end  made  this  part  of  the  casting  exceedingly  wavy  and 
rough,  and  was  more  than  enough  to  condemn  it.  Besides 
this  wavy  and  oxide-laden  surface,  this  "  waster  "  was  aggra- 
vated by  large  and  deep  "  drawn  "  holes ;  and  although  a  lost 
casting,  it  gave  a  splendid  object  lesson  on  the  effects  of 
"  draw."  The  result  of  this  failure  in  the  "  declivity  position," 
was  an  imperative  order  for  one  to  be  moulded  without  delay 
and  cast  "  on  end  "  or  "  vertically,"  the  position  originally 
discussed.  In  this  position  the  job  was  gated  and  dropped 
from  the  top,  and  fed  well;  the  pouring  gates  were  two  in 

number  and  made  about 
2J  ins.  square,  so  that  the 
best  chance  possible  for 
feeding  would  be  got  (see 
Fig.  129.)  Briefly,  all  went 
satisfactorily  up  to  the 
FIG.  130.  point  of  feeding,  but  when 

the    moulder    applied     his 

"  rod  "  for  this  purpose,  he  had  not  gone  many  strokes  when 
it  was  "  frozen  "  or  held  fast  in  the  gate,  and  so  the  operation 
of  feeding  the  casting  was  cut  short  for  the  time  being.  When 
the  casting  was  turned  out,  it  looked  fairly  well,  as  it  was  smooth 
skinned  from  top  to  bottom  ;  but,  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  top  end  shrinkholes  were  formed  by  "  draw,"  and  in  a  more 
intense  form  than  previously,  which  at  once  convinced  all 
interested  that  a  "  scrap  "  had  been  cast  instead  of  a  casting. 

Again,  another  one  was  tried  with  every  detail  of  moulding 
and  casting  practically  the  same,  the  only  difference  being  that 
when  the  metal  came  through  into  the  "  riser  "  a  hot  crucible 
with  a  fair  supply  of  metal  was  in  waiting  to  "  lubricate  "  the 
feeders,  and  "pour  through"  to  give  the  casting  every 
possible  chance  of  being  solid ;  with  this  a  considerable 
improvement  was  effected,  but  not  enough  to  save  the  casting ; 
which  was  again  lost  from  the  same  cause  as  before,  namely, 
draw7  shrinkholes  in  its  top  end. 


STARTING  A  SMALL  BRASS  FOUNDRY  213 

At  this  point  we  count  three  attempts  and  as  many  failures, 
so  that  what  followed  may  be  better  imagined  than  explained  ; 
suffice  it  is  to  say  that  the  moulder  on  the  job,  who  had  given 
the  habits  of  metal  some  consideration,  suggested  to  cast  it  on 
its  "  flat."  This  was  at  first  demurred  to,  as  the  casting  was 
to  be  equally  polished  all  over,  and  it  was  feared  that  it 
would  have  a  dirty  top  side  from  this  position.  However,  the 
moulder  being  prepared  to  explain  himself  in  detail,  and 
confident  of  success  in  casting  it  "  dead  flat "  or  horizontal, 
it  was  ultimately  agreed  to  have  a  trial,  and  the  first  one 
cast  in  this  new  position  proved  him  to  be  correct ;  needless  to 
say  it  came  out  perfectly  clean  and  solid,  the  top  side  of  the 
casting  being  practically  as  good  in  this  respect  as  the 
bottom. 

Now,  as  there  was  nothing  unusual  in  the  moulding  of 
this  job,  time  need  not  be  unduly  wasted  further  than  to  state, 
as  before,  that  it  was  a  dry-sand  mould,  perfectly  moulded, 
properly  gated,  and  cast  with  an  alloy  of  good-conditioned 
metal.  Consequently  it  became  a  question  of  position  of 
casting,  for  the  better  securing  of  uniform  compression,  a 
thing  it  had  not  received  in  either  of  the  positions  of  casting 
previously.  Such  was  the  standpoint  from  which  the  moulder 
viewed  this  difficulty,  and  the  after  results  showed  the  wisdom 
of  his  convictions. 

In  turning  to  Figs.  129  and  130  there  is  seen  in  the  two 
sections  the  contrast  between  the  two  different  positions 
suggested.  The  first  position  which  was  "  down-hill "  or 
declivity,  and  which  cast  with  such  indifferent  results,  is  passed 
by  without  further  comment.  Fig.  129  is  intended  to  represent 
in  section  the  defects  which  condemned  the  casting  when  cast 
in  the  position  illustrated.  Alongside  of  this  there  is  Fig.  130 
representing  absolute  uniformity  and  homogeneity  of  the 
metal ;  the  former,  of  course,  is  a  scrap,  and  the  latter  a  casting. 

The  moulder,  in  suggesting  that  this  job  should  be  cast  in 
the  flat  position,  had  in  view  the  fact  that  most  metals  shrink 
in  passing  through  the  process  of  solidification,  and  that  the 
damage  that  may  be  done  by  this  is  minimised  or  altogether 
prevented  by  reducing  the  depth  of  the  mould  as  much  as 
possible.  The  two  figures  given  are  supposed  to  represent 


214  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

two  moulds  containing  solidified  castings,  the  one  being  4  ft. 
deep  and  the  other  4  ins.  deep,  irrespective  of  risers,  etc.,  so 
that  by  casting  this  job  on  the  flat  (Fig.  130)  there  were  4  ins. 
instead  of  the  previous  48  ins.  (Fig.  129)  of  "  sink  "  and 
"shrink"  (the  term  "sink"  being  often  used  instead  of 
"  draw  ").  The  unsoundness  due  to  the  effects  of  shrinkage 
was  thus  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  adoption  of  the  flat 
position  put  an  end  to  all  the  trouble  previously  experienced. 
Position,  however,  although  of  such  importance  in  the  case  of 
all  brass  or  gunmetal  castings,  is  not  the  only  factor  on  which 
success  depends,  another  being  the  conditions  of  cooling. 
From  a  further  examination  of  Figs.  129  and  130  it  will  be 
noticed  that  only  in  the  latter  instance  is  uniformity  of  cooling 
possible.  With  this  casting  poured  in  the  flat  position  every- 
thing is  uniform,  even  to  the  distribution  of  gates  (not  shown) 
which  were  six  in  number,  each  If  ins.  in  diameter,  and  were 
placed  across  the  box  containing  the  job.  In  casting,  a  double 
basin  pouring  head  was  made  of  suitable  dimensions,  and  with 
a  ladle  at  each  basin,  and  pouring  instantly  together,  the 
cast  was  completed  in  a  comparatively  few  seconds.  The 
ebb  from  the  fluid  metal  in  the  basins  flowing  splendidly 
back  into  the  mould  made  a  complete  automatic  feed  of  all 
gates,  which  resulted  in  a  clean  and  solid  casting  as  before 
mentioned.  Four  of  these  castings  were  made  consecutively 
and  on  the  lines  suggested  without  a  hitch.  Therefore,  what 
applies  to  the  casting  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  129,  applies  also 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  all  vertical  projections  and 
sections  of  such  castings  as  the  hubs  or  bosses  of  propellers, 
and  such  like  ;  and  for  safety  and  to  secure  absolute  sound- 
ness on  solidification  a  margin  of  mould  is  necessary  to 
whatever  the  finished  length  a  casting  may  be,  and  by 
feeding  here  with  hot  metal  after  the  mould  is  cast,  we  may 
be  perfectly  safe  in  saying,  that  when  this  margin  or  sinking- 
head,  which  should  be  the  last  part  to  set,  is  provided  the 
rest  should  be  a  good  solid  casting. 

Cooling  the  Castings. — Having  gone  further  in  the  direction 
of  heavy  work  than  was  intended,  we  return  to  the  common 
practice  of  brass  moulders  in  light  work,  who  lift  their 
castings  while  hot  and  plunge  them  into  a  water  trough. 


BKON^ES  215 

Briefly  this  practice  is  not  commendable  for  castings  that 
are  liable  to  irregular  shinkage,  as  such  treatment  may  spring 
the  class  of  castings  referred  to,  or  at  least  shorten  their  life. 
But  where  plain  section  articles  are  being  made  it  is  perfectly 
safe  to  plunge  comparatively  hot  castings  into  a  water 
trough,  and  in  this  way  improve,  in  many  cases,  the  metal, 
and  at  the  same  time  facilitate  fettling. 

BEONZES 

Aluminium  Bronze  (copper,  90  ;  aluminium,  10). — This 
metal  has  a  greater  shrinkage  than  gunmetal,  and  is  generally 
regarded  as  the  discovery  of  Dr.  Percy.  When  working  this 
metal  everything  possible  to  expedite  shrinkage  must  be 
attended  to. 

Phosphor  Bronze. — In  making  phosphor  bronze,  it  must 
be  pointed  out  that  phosphorus  is  so  powerful  a  con- 
stituent, and  the  percentage  used  for  this  purpose  is  so  small 
that  phosphor  copper  and  phosphor  tin  have  of  necessity  been 
compounded,  thus  forming  two  separate  alloys  for  the  safer 
manipulation  of  phosphor  bronze  castings.  Phosphor  copper 
usually  contains  15  per  cent,  phosphorus,  and  phosphor  tin 
contains  only  5  per  cent,  of  this  metalloid  :  the  use  of  the 
latter  alloy  is  generally  most  commendable.  In  making 
phosphor  bronze  alloys  by  the  addition  of  either  phosphor 
copper  or  phosphor  tin  we  are  fairly  safe  in  keeping  within 
10  per  cent,  of  either.  Or  again,  the  full  quantity  decided 
upon  may  be  proportioned  according  to  immediate  demands 
and  other  circumstances  combined. 

However,  a  good  phosphor  bronze  can  be  got  from  copper 
and  tin,  and,  say,  traces  of  phosphorus.  The  hard  type  of 
phosphor  bronze  is  used  for  casting  pinions,  small  spur,  and 
bevel  wheels,  brass  bearings,  and  other  castings,  requiring 
extraordinary  anti-frictional  metal.  The  following  are  the 
specified  requirements  of  the  Admiralty  for  phosphor  bronze 
castings  :— 

"No.  1."  "No.  2." 

Copper     .         .         .90  per  cent.  Copper  .         .         .83  per  cent. 

Phosphor  Tin  .         .10       ,,  Phosphor  Copper  .       7       ,, 

Tin  10 


210  FACTS  ON   GENEEAL  FOUNDBY  PRACTICE 

Manganese  Bronze. — As  is  known,  this  alloy  contains  a  large 
amount  of  spelter,  and  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  very 
strong  yellow  metal ;  and  in  making  up  this  metal,  manganese 
in  the  form  of  "  cupro-manganese,"  or  "  ferro-manganese  " 
may  be  used.  The  former  contains  20  per  cent,  metallic 
manganese,  and  the  latter  contains  approximately  80  per 
cent,  manganese.  In  the  working  of  this  metal,  as  with  all 
others  containing  a  high  percentage  of  spelter,  an  allowance 
of  8  Ibs.  or  4 .  Ibs.  per  hundred  should  be  added  for  the 
wastage  common  to  the  melting  of  zinc. 

For  this  and  all  other  bronzes  moulded  and  cast,  dry-sand 
moulds  are  at  all  times  the  best ;  but  where  such  is  not  con- 
veniently got,  then  dry  the  green-sand  moulds,  and  the  results 
of  casting  will  more  than  compensate  for  all  the  trouble  taken 
in  this  matter. 

The  "plug-gate"  system  of  casting  is  much  admired  by 
some  for  this  sort  of  metal,  but  to  others  the  gain  is  not 
commensurate  with  the  trouble  involved.  Given  good  metal, 
skimmed  well  and  cast  at  the  proper  temperature,  which 
must  be  as  dull  as  is  compatible  with  the  safe  running 
of  the  mould,  gating  from  the  bottom  will  bring  results 
more  satisfactory  in  the  securing  of  a  clean,  sound,  and 
solid  casting  than  is  possible  to  any  other  method  of  casting. 
But  no  matter  whether  the  gate  or  gates  be  controlled  by 
plug  or  plugs,  oxidation  inevitably  becomes  increased  when 
run  from  the  top  by  the  process  of  churning  going  on  inside 
of  the  mould  at  the  time  of  pouring  the  metal.  All  metals 
coarse  or  fine  are  cleaner  and  better  cast  into  moulds,  and 
produce  better  castings,  when  run  from  the  bottom — a  truth 
not  acceptable  to  many,  but  which  is  the  rock-bottom  of 
experience.  Herewith  is  appended  a  mixture  suitable  for 
propeller  blades,  and  which  has  considerable  ductility  for 
working  cold,  and  resists  corrosion  when  exposed  to  water  :— 


Copper       .  .  .  .         »         .54  per  cent. 

Zinc  .         .  .  .  .         .        .     43 

Manganese  .  .  ...       2       ,, 

Aluminium  1 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


CASTING  SPECULUMS  217 

CASTING    SPECULUMS 

The  writer's  experience  in  this  particular  class  of  castings 
is  somewhat  unique,  inasmuch  as  it  was  his  good  fortune  to 
cast  speculums  from  9  ins.  to  14  ins.  diameter  for  a  dis- 
tinguished member  of  the  Koyal  Astronomical  Society.  The 
difficulties  of  securing  an  absolute  polish,  or  lustre  on  the  face 
of  those  castings  gave  one  a  training  in  the  manipulating  of 
metals  in  the  art  of  founding  far  above  the  average  of  what  is 
common  to  the  work  of  the  ordinary  brass  founder,  and  this  is 
specially  so  as  it  relates  to  the  habits  of  metal  while  passing 
from  the  fluid  condition  to  absolute  shrinkage.  As  has  already 
been  noted,  those  castings  have  to  take  on  not  only  a  bright 
finish,  but  a  dense  and  lustrous  polish  far  in  excess  of  any 
other  metal  the  writer  had  ever  before  seen  or  heard  of.  Thus 
it  came  about  that  one  speck,  no  matter  however  small,  or 
even  one  pinhole  on  the  polished  face  of  those  castings  was  in 
either  case  enough  to  condemn  them,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact 
the  percentage  of  good  castings  from  the  lot  made  was  but 
small  indeed. 

The  Alloy.  —  Speculum  metal  is  a  very  uncommon  alloy  in 
brass  foundry  practice,  although  it  is  common  knowledge  to 
say  that  it  is  made  up  of  copper,  tin,  antimony,  arsenic,  and 
some  might  add  to  this  lead  and  silver  also.  However,  it  is  said 
that  "  Boss's  alloy  "  contained  copper  68'21  per  cent.,  tin  31*79 
per  cent.  ;  be  this  as  it  may,  we  give  it  for  what  it  is  worth. 

All  speculum  metals  are  very  brittle,  white  in  colour,  and 
when  good,  are  said  to  make  a  much  superior  mirror  to  that 
of  glass,  although  the  latter  has  to  a  great  extent  displaced  the 
"metal  speculum,"  doubtless  due  to  the  great  difficulty  of 
getting  the  spotless  lustre  referred  to. 

Brittleness  signifies  excessive  hardness,  and  as  a  result  the 
annealing  of  these  castings  becomes  imperative.  Therefore 
these  castings,  after  being  poured  and  solidified,  are  removed 
at  the  proper  time  to  a  small  improvised  oven  prepared  for 
them,  and  after  being  annealed  the  stipulated  time,  are  allowed 
to  cool  down  to  atmospheric  temperature,  and  of  course  are 
then  afterwards  taken  out  from  their  packing,  preparatory  to 
the  polishing  process  referred  to, 


218  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEAGTICE 

"  Draw." — One  of  the  most  striking  peculiarities  of  speculum 
metal  is  to  be  found  in  its  great  tendency  to  "draw."  With 
these  castings,  heavy  direct-acting  gates  were  located  on  the  top 
side,  sometimes  two  and  sometimes  three  in  number,  but  even 
with  such  supplies  for  compressing  purposes,  it  was  no  unusual 
affair  to  see  them  lost  by  their  gates  having  "  drawn  ' '  right  down 
through  their  centres  from  top  to  bottom,  and  in  some  cases 
well  through  towards  the  face  of  the  casting  as  seen  at  Fig.  131. 
This  phenomenon  led  to  experimenting  in  compression,  and 
in  this  matter  things  remained  much  the  same  as  before  until 
"open-sand"  casting  was  resorted  to,  rather  a  strange  device 
for  the  better  compression  of  metals.  But  no  matter  however 
strange  it  may  appear,  the  "  open-sand  "  casting  proved 
superior  to  those  that  had  been  flasked  and  fed  automatically 
from  the  heavy  arrangement  of  gates  previously  mentioned. 

As   is   well   known,   the 
backs  of  these  castings  are 


not  very  particular,  other- 
wise this  somewhat  crude 

-T  I  Gr  •     1  0 1  • 

method  of  moulding  and 

casting  could  never  have  been  entertained  at  all.  "  Open- 
sand  "  was  the  method  of  this  experienced  gentleman's 
amateur  days  of  speculum  founding,  and  to  this,  after  many 
years,  he  returned  with  improved  practice. 

Fig.  132  is  approximately  the  view  in  section  when  this 
"open-sand"  casting,  as  represented  here,  was  broken  up. 
Nevertheless,  its  polished  face  was  an  improvement  on  some 
previously  flasked.  But  at  this  juncture  the  idea  of  cooling 
from  the  bottom  upwards  had  manifested  itself,  and  as  a 
result  a  second  one  was  tried,  but  immediately  after  it  was 
poured,  this  casting  was  judiciously  covered  with  a  carbonaceous 
compound;  with  the  result  that  the  success,  as  anticipated, 
had  now  become  matter  of  fact,  and  from  this  onward  open 
sand  became  a  fixed  principle  of  casting  the  speculums 
in  question — a  point  of  special  note  to  the  amateur  telescope 
maker. 

In  Figs.  131  and  132,  accompanying  this  article,  we  have  a 
very  valuable  and  unusual  object  lesson  in  the  solidification  of 
metals,  and  for  this  purpose  specifically  we  give  actual 


CASTING  SPECULUMS  219 

experience  in  this  matter  as  it  occurred  to  the  writer  in 
practice  some  years  ago. 

Treatment  of  Castings.— Briefly  put,  Fig.  131  on  being  cast 
was  covered  up  in  the  usual  way  by  sifting  a  little  sand  over 
the  top  of  it,  which  resulted  in  its  exposed  surface  being 
rapidly  cooled,  while  underneath  it  was  comparatively  fluid ; 
and  as  this  part  had  still  to  solidify,  the  roof  remained,  so  to 
speak,  a  fixed  and  immovable  quantity,  while  the  fluid  or 
plastic  metal  continued  to  shrink  and  sink  towards  the 
bottom,  thus  creating  the  shrinkholes  illustrated  in  Fig.  181, 
and  rendering  it  a  scrap. 

In  Fig.  132  the  method  of  treating  the  job  was  in 
every  respect  the  same  with  but  one  exception,  namely,  in 
that  it  was  covered  up  with  the  carbonaceous  material 
previously  mentioned.  The  result  will  be  obvious;  the 
judicious  covering  up  with 
carbon  retarded  the  setting 
of  the  top  metal,  and  being 
comparatively  a  thin  cast-  FlG  132 

ing,  it  would  be  difficult  to 

say  which  of  the  sides  solidified  first.  These  castings  varied 
from  1J  ins.  to  If  ins.  rough  metal,  and  the  concave  form, 
as  illustrated  at  Fig.  132,  conveys  at  once  to  the  practical  eye 
the  effect  this  carbonaceous  covering  had  in  densifying  this 
metal  by  cooling,  as  far  as  it  was  practically  possible,  from  the 
bottom  side  upwards. 

Compression. — It  is  an  open  question  as  to  whether  fluid 
metals  passing  through  the  process  of  solidification  while 
cooling  are  mechanically  compressible  or  not.  Within  certain 
limits  it  may  be  possible,  but  no  artificial  application  in  the 
compressing  of  fluid  metals,  however  ingeniously  and  power- 
fully applied  (in  the  author's  opinion)  will  ever  densify  the  top 
end,  of,  say,  an  ingot  casting  or  any  other  body  of  metal,  coarse 
or  fine,  equally  dense  and  homogeneous  with  its  bottom  end. 

There  is  a  means  of  densifying  more  effectively  than  by 
mechanical  compression,  and  that  is  to  cool  from  the  bottom 
upwards.  Although  the  process  is  slow,  the  object  aimed  at 
can  be  secured  within  certain  limits.  But  the  economic  value 
of  the  process  creates  matter  for  doubt  and  discussion,  and  it 


220  FACTS  ON  GENEKAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTICE 

being  an  inversion  of  nature,  its  adoption  is  not  likely  to  be 
a  practical  possibility  within  easy  reach.  All  the  same, 
the  method  illustrated  by  Fig.  132  gave  absolute  density, 
truly  a  phenomenon  in  "  open-sand  "  casting  when  compared 
with  flasked  work. 

Melting  and  Pouring. — But  to  return  more  particularly  to 
the  subject  of  speculum  casting,  pouring  with  abnormal 
basins  and  increased  vertical  height,  ostensibly  for  the  purpose 
of  better  solidification,  and  its  consequent  improved  density, 
is  to  no  purpose  if  the  metal  and  method  of  treating  it  be 
wrong,  and  Fig.  132,  as  illustrating  the  after-treatment  in 
casting  those  speculums,  is  more  than  ample  proof  of  the 
above  assertion. 

In  preparing  the  furnace  and  pot  for  melting  the  metal, 
needless  to  say,  all  things  pertaining  thereto  must  be  in 
good  condition — a  suitable  fire  and  pot  previously  prepared 
by  annealing  and  cleaning,  so  that  the  best  chance 
possible  of  getting  the  metal  pure  and  good  will  be  secured. 
No  "coaling  up,"  if  possible,  during  the  process  of  melting 
should  take  place ;  likewise  the  pot  should  have  a  good  mouth 
for  securing  a  smart  and  clean  pour  with  the  metal. 

In  charging,  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  overloading  the 
crucible,  as  the  metal  is  liable  to  become  contaminated  with 
fuel  and  dirt.  It  is  better  to  charge  a  portion  first,  and  when 
this  has  "  sweated  "  down  add  a  fresh  portion  of  the  charge. 

Care  must  be  taken  while  the  melting  is  proceeding  not  to 
hurry  it  in  any  way,  otherwise  it  may  be  detrimental  to  the 
purity  and  homogeneity  of  the  metal.  On  the  crucible  being 
taken  from  the  furnace,  skim  and  flux  by  the  assistance  of 
rosin.  This  may  be  repeated  more  than  once  if  thought  neces- 
sary, but  with  things  normal  the  second  fluxing  and  cleaning 
should  be  quite  enough  for  what  is  wanted,  namely,  the 
cleanest  of  metal  possible. 

Before  pouring,  clean  the  mouth  of  the  crucible  by  brushing, 
and  dust  a  little  ground  rosin  over  the  face  of  the  mould 
through  a  common  blacking  bag.  This  will  tend  very  much 
to  keep  the  oxide  common  to  this  alloy  from  sticking  to  the 
face  of  the  mould  while'  pouring  the  metal,  and  in  that  way 
maintain  fluidity  of  metal  otherwise  impossible. 


ALUMINIUM  FOUNDING  221 

Thus  we  summarise  speculum  casting  : — (1)  The  alloy, 
(2)  treament  of  castings  and  results,  (3)  compression,  (4)  melt- 
ing and  pouring,  and  (5)  moulding.  Practically  there  is  but 
little  to  say  on  moulding,  that  is  to  say,  if  it  be  an  open-sand 
mould  that  is  to  be  considered,  and  if  it  be  flasked  perhaps 
enough  has  already  been  referred  to.  Of  course,  nothing  short 
of  a  good  "  dry- sand  "  mould  will  do.  In  making  the  mould, 
and  at  the  drawing  of  the  pattern,  there  must  be  no  attempt  at 
finishing  the  face,  and  if  the  mould  be  not  correct,  break  it  up 
entirely  and  make  a  new  one.  It  should  be  made  of  rock  sand 
or  London  sand,  or  any  other  similar  sand  that  will  "  bake  " 
when  exposed  to  heat.  A  spray  of  beer  blown  over  the  face 
will  much  improve  its  surface  when  judiciously  applied,  and 
will  give  it  a  double  chance  against  any  particles  of  sand 
rising  from  its  surface  during  the  operation  of  pouring.  And 
lastly,  when  taken  from  the  stove  to  cast,  it  should  have  a 
good  heat  about  it,  which  in  turn  will  give  the  metal  all  the 
better  chance  against  oxidisation.  This,  together  with  the 
dust  of  rosin  as  suggested,  completes  all  that  is  humanly 
possible,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  in  moulding  and  casting 
speculums  and  for  the  better  securing  of  a  sound  and  spotless 
finished  casting. 

ALUMINIUM    FOUNDING 

The  metal  used  for  aluminium  castings  has  its  own  peculiari- 
ties, both  as  regards  moulding  and  casting  ;  but  while  this  is  so, 
a  practical  green- sand  moulder  of  cast  iron  can,  with  a  few  hints, 
adapt  himself  in  a  comparatively  short  time  to  bench  or  tub 
moulding  by  which  a  high  percentage  of  the  castings  from  this 
metal  are  produced.  And  of  all  metals  founded  aluminium 
can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  the  most  difficult  to  cast,  and 
we  are  safe  in  stating  that  none  is  less  liable  to  scabbing  ; 
and  in  the  matter  of  lifting  pressure  of  cores,  if  once  these 
are  put  into  their  proper  place,  and  the  "  lift  "  be  normal, 
we  have  no  need  to  fear  that  they  will  be  moved  by 
pressure  of  any  kind.  These  two  points  bring  us  face  to  face 
with  two  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  foundry  practice, 
namely,  pressure  and  scabbing.  Now,  with  regard  to 
the  first,  we  notice  that  what  must  be  secured  ordinarily  in 


222  FACTS   ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PRACTICE 

moulds  by  chaplets,  nails,  or  some  other  device,  in  the  case  of 
iron,  steel,  brass,  or  other  metals  specifically  heavier,  would  be 
perfectly  safe  without  any  such  assistance  in  a  mould  cast 
with  aluminium.  The  reason  for  this  is  due  to  the  relatively 
low  specific  gravity  of  the  metal,  which  is  given  at  about  2*60. 
Bulk  for  bulk  sand  and  aluminium  are  approximately  of  the 
same  weight,  and  since  a  solid  immersed  in  a  liquid  is  buoyed 
up  by  a  force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  liquid  displaced,  there 
will  be  no  lifting  pressure  when  the  weight  of  the  solid  is  the 
same  as  or  greater  than  that  of  the  liquid  displaced.  Hence 
it  is  that  cores  in  many  cases  do  not  "  lift "  when  enshrouded 
with  fluid  aluminium  in  a  mould  as  is  the  case  with  other 
metals  of  greater  specific  gravity. 

Our  next  point  is  the  problem  of  "  scabbing,"  and  as  scabbing 
is  doubtless  due  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  intensity  of  heat, 
which  leads  to  the  generation  of  gases,  and  their  ignition,  it 
naturally  follows  that  the  more  intense  the  heat  of  any  metal 
with  which  a  mould  is  cast,  the  greater  will  be  the  volume  of 
gas  formed,  and  the  more  the  gas-producing  substances,  which 
are  contained  in  all  sands  used  for  cores  and  moulds,  will 
manifest  themselves  at  the  time  of  pouring  a  mould.  But 
whether  scabbing  be  due  entirely  to  evolution  of  gases  and  bad 
venting,  or  these  and  heat  combined,  the  comparatively  low 
temperature  and  small  amount  of  gas  generated  in  the  case  of 
aluminium,  as  compared  with  other  metals,  may  explain  why 
aluminium  and  the  other  white  metals  are  comparatively,  if 
not  altogether,  free  from  scabbing  when  cast  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  moulding. 

The  foregoing  opens  up  a  wide  field  as  to  the  cause  and  effect 
of  the  scabbing  of  metals,  and  the  behaviour  of  fluid  metals  in 
moulds ;  but  we  can  only  pause  to  note  the  relation  between 
tendency  to  scabbing  and  the  melting  points  of  some  of  the 
metals  commonly  used  in  the  foundry.  (1)  Steel  has  a 
melting  point  of  about  1,450°  C.  (2)  Cast  iron  melts  at  about 
1,200°  C.  (3)  Gunmetal  as  an  alloy  might  be  put  down 
as  approximately  1,000°  C.,  and  aluminium,  say,  650°  C. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  tendency  of  scabbing 
increases  in  proportion  as  the  melting  points  of  these  metals 
increase  in  temperature.  Thus  it  is  that  steel  moulding 


ALUMINIUM  FOUNDING  223 

requires  so  much  "  sprigging,"  and  in  many  cases  it  is  simply 
a  nailing  down  of  the  whole  surface  of  a  mould  to  keep  it 
from  scabbing  :  this  being  due  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  fluid 
metal  with  which  it  is  cast.  Cast  iron  comes  next,  brass 
follows  it,  and  aluminium  with  a  melting  point  less  than 
the  half  that  of  steel,  has,  with  all  conditions  of  moulding 
being  equal,  comparatively  no  danger  of  scabbing  at  all. 
Therefore  we  may  safely  conclude  that  heat  is  a  positive 
factor  in  scabbing. 

In  this  connection  the  difference  in  the  effects  observable 
when  these  metals  are  cast  into  moulds  is  very  striking.  For 
example,  in  the  case  of  iron  and  steel,  a  large  volume  of  com- 
bustible gas  which  burns  brightly  is  generated,  and  in  many 
cases  continues  for  long  after  pouring  to  send  out  a  bright 
flame  like  a  torch  from  the  particular  vent  of  mould  or  core 
as  the  case  may  be. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  pour  the  same  mould  with  brass, 
and  the  contrast  becomes  very  marked  indeed.  I  have  never 
in  all  my  experience,  seen  brass  poured  into  a  mould  whose 
heat  afterwards  was  sufficiently  great  to  ignite  and  burn  the 
straw  from  the  core-bar  used  in  making  the  loam  core 
employed  in  the  production  of  such  a  casting.  And  as  to 
aluminium,  whose  melting  point  has  already  been  referred  to 
as  some  300°  or  400°  C.  below  that  of  gunmetal,  the  heat  is 
obviously  insufficient  to  ignite  to  any  great  extent  the  com- 
bustible materials  in  the  mould  or  cores.  Hence,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  with  ordinary  care  aluminium  casting  is  performed  very 
quietly ;  and  but  for  a  little  steam  which  may  rise  from  the 
sand  of  which  the  "basins"  are  made  for  the  respective 
moulds  that  are  cast,  little  or  no  outside  indication  of  a 
mould  being  cast  (with  things  normal)  is  usually  visible. 

Sand. — A  good  deal  has  been  written  about  the  sand  used 
for  aluminium  moulds.  Some  authorities  declare  that  it  is 
imperative  that  all  sands  for  facing  should  pass  through  a  hair 
sieve.  This  seems  a  somewhat  novel  and  unpractical  sugges- 
tion, and  we  have  no  experience  of  such  niceties — indeed,  such 
fine  sifting  is  not  to  be  commended.  A  mould  or  core  which 
is  deprived  of  the  grainy  texture  in  the  surface  against  which 
the  metal  has  to  strike  is  likely  to  result  in  cracked  castings. 


224  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL   FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 

Moreover,  the  moulder  must  avoid  the  density  of  surface  on 
mould  or  core  such  as  is  produced  by  blackwashing.  The  treat- 
ment suitable  for  green-sand  work  can  with  perfect  safety  be 
practised  with  aluminium  moulding,  and  sand  which  has  been 
sieved  as  fine  as  for  green-sand  work  will,  as  a  rule,  do  all  that 
is  required.  In  drawing  a  pattern  from  the  sand  use  as  little 
swab- water  as  possible,  and  the  same  applies  to  the  mould ; 
thereafter  a  slight  dust  from  a  tarra-flake  or  French-chalk 
dusting  bag  .should  complete  all  that  is  required  in  finishing 
the  mould  made  on  tub,  bench,  or  machine. 

Gating. — The  popular  idea  favours  large  gates  and  quick 
running,  but  as  a  rule  and  for  general  practice  it  is  a  mistake 
to  adopt  this  method.  The  better  way  is  to  gate  as  for  iron.  By 
adopting  this  rule  when  running  aluminium  moulds  we  are  on 
fairly  safe  lines,  though  the  moulder  must  not  allow  himself  to 
be  tied  by  a  hard-and-fast  rule.  Take  the  case  of  running  from 
the  highest  part  of  the  mould  :  no  harm  in  many  cases 
would  happen  with  aluminium  though  it  would  not  answer  with 
iron.  For  example,  a  name-plate,  whether  large  or  small, 
might  be  "  drop-gated "  anywhere  and  run  from  the  top 
amongst  the  letters  without  fear  of  damage  to  the  casting. 
Care  must  be  taken  against  filling  the  mould  too  quickly, 
otherwise  the  mould  may  not  be  poured  at  all,  because 
aluminium,  which  oxidises  rapidly  and  is  of  low  specific 
gravity,  is  said  to  lack  the  power  to  expel  the  air  from 
the  mould  quickly  enough  to  allow  the  metal  to  fill  all  the 
space  it  should  do.  Consequently,  the  rate  of  filling  the 
mould  means  much  in  pouring  aluminium. 

Risers. — These  are  not  advisable  in  small  and  light  work, 
but  a  "blow-off"  from  a  pricker  or  vent  wire  at  the  end 
opposite  to  the  "gating"  will  do  no  harm,  and  may  often 
help  matters.  Experience,  however,  has  proved  that  even 
these  can  be  dispensed  with  when  the  sand,  metal,  and 
workmanship  are  all  really  good  and  suitable.  Where,  how- 
ever, a  heavy  part  exists  on  the  casting,  a  riser  large  enough 
to  admit  of  unaided  or  automatic  feeding  may  be  applied  with 
advantage.  These  remarks  principally  apply  to  castings  of 
medium  weight  in  this  metal. 

Melting. — In  melting  aluminium  metal,  see  to  it  that  the 


ALUMINIUM  FOUNDING  225 

fire  is  in  good  condition  before  setting  the  crucible,  which 
should  be  placed  on  the  fire  with  enough  fuel  round  it  to 
bring  off  the  heat  without  the  necessity  of  "  coaling- up  "  in 
the  middle  or  anywhere  else  during  the  process  of  melting  the 
respective  charges  in  the  crucible.  There  is  no  difficulty 
experienced  in  this,  as  a  "  heat  "  with  a  50-lb.  or  60-lb.  crucible 
ought  not  to  take  more  than  40  or  45  minutes  ;  smaller  or 
larger  quantities  will  vary  in  time  proportionately. 

In  charging  the  crucible  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
none  of  the  metal  projects  above  the  crucible,  and  the  charge 
should  be  of  uniform  size,  at  least  in  so  far  as  this  is  possible. 
This  obviates  the  risk  of  exposing  the  metal  to  the  flame,  and 
minimises  oxidisation.  In  the  process  of  melting,  a  strict 
look-out  must  be  kept  on  the  metal,  and  when  it  reaches  the 
liquid  state  the  furnace  cover  may  be  lifted  to  allow  the  heat 
to  rise  gradually  to  the  requisite  point,  whi6h  is  somewhere 
about  650°  0.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  scrap  or  small 
pieces  of  metal  may  be  added  to  bring  up  the  quantity,  if  need 
be.  When  the  pot  is  drawn  from  the  fire  it  ought  not  to  be 
hotter  than  the  metal ;  pouring  from  a  superheated  crucible 
means  that  the  excess  of  heat  is  absorbed  in  the  metal,  a 
condition  of  things  which  does  not  favour  the  casting. 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  allow  the  metal  to  get  hotter  than 
is  required  for  pouring  the  mould  ;  of  course,  it  is  true  that 
any  temperature  can  be  lowered  by  adding  suitable  scrap  and 
waiting,  but  on  the  other  hand,  mischief  is  undoubtedly  done  by 
over-heating.  Few  things  can  be  more  mischievous  than 
oxide  in  any  metal,  and  with  no  metals  does  this  fact  impress 
itself  more  than  with  white  metal  castings. 

Again,  the  oxidised  metal  and  scum  which  collects  on  the 
surface  of  the  crucible  should  not  be  disturbed.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  push  it  back  with  the  skimmer  before  pour- 
ing, the  residue  remaining  to  keep  subsequent  charges  from 
oxidising.  Of  course,  sooner  or  later  this  scum  collects 
in  such  quantities  that  its  removal  ultimately  becomes 
imperative. 

Aluminium  unalloyed  is  but  rare,  and  the  evil  of  this  is 
that  some  work  with  it  as  if  it  were  all  of  the  same  composi- 
tion, and  believe  that  what  is  right  for  one  metal  will  be 

F.P.  Q 


226  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTICE 

equally  good  for  all.  This  is  not  the  case,  and  those  who 
have  to  make  aluminium  castings  should  at  all  times  know 
the  true  value  of  the  alloy  that  they  are  making  castings 
from.  But  apart  from  this,  assuming  our  metal  has  been 
graded,  the  next  question  is,  How  are  we  to  melt  it  ?  With 
some  an  iron  ladle  is  deemed  quite  suitable,  but  we  have 
never  found  this  so  in  practice,  and  while  this  may  be  a 
convenience  where  patterns  are  being  cast,  such  a  practice 
cannot  be  resorted  to  where  the  castings  are  for  customers. 
All  metal  for  marketable  castings  should  be  melted  in  a 
crucible  of  a  quality  suitable  for  brass,  and  must  be  aided 
in  this  by  forced  draught  or  a  chimney ;  in  other  words, 
no  place  is  so  suitable  for  melting  aluminium  as  the  furnace 
of  an  ordinary  brass  foundry. 

Temperature. — On  the  question  of  temperature  we  have 
little  advice  to  give,  for  until  some  inventor  gives  us  a  foundry 
pyrometer  really  suitable  for  testing  metals  outside  the 
furnace,  and  that  can  be  read  as  easily  as  the  practical  eye 
"  reads  heat  "  by  the  colour  of  the  feeding-rod  after  it  has  been 
put  into  the  ladle  or  crucible  for  this  purpose,  we  are  not 
likely  to  obtain  any  definite  data  for  the  guidance  of  foundry 
men.  All  the  same,  if  a  founder  is  well  grounded  in  the 
belief  that  yellow  brass  cannot  be  cast  too  hot,  phosphor 
bronze  cannot  be  cast  too  dull,  gunmetal  should  be  cast  at  a 
nice  heat,  and  anti-friction  metal  should  never  be  allowed  to 
come  to  a  red  heat,  he  has  within  certain  limits  a  basis 
for  calculating  the  temperature  at  which  to  cast  any  alloy, 
and  of  course  this  specially  refers  to  aluminium. 

It  may  be  said  with  safety  that  all  are  agreed  that  the 
secret  of  success  in  aluminium  casting  lies  in  the  melting ; 
consequently  we  must  take  care  not  to  overheat  or  burn  it. 
If  once  it  is  heated  abnormally,  the  difficulty  of  bringing  it 
back  to  the  proper  normal  condition  is  great  indeed. 

The  chances  are  that  metal  mistreated  in  the  way  indicated 
will  be  badly  speckled  with  pinholes,  or  gas-holes,  as  some 
term  them,  although  others  ascribe  this  trouble  to  the  use  of 
the  graphite  crucible  which  melts  the  metal.  The  pinholes 
are  a  real  nuisance,  but  neither  explanation  is  free  from  doubt, 
for  the  trouble  occurs  with  white  metals,  brass  and  other 


ALUMINIUM  CASTINGS  AND  ALLOYS  227 

alloys.  However,  there  is  a  general  concensus  of  opinion 
that  pinholes  are  the  result  of  excessive  heat  while  the 
metal  is  in  the  furnace.  This  is  due  to  the  oxide  which  is 
formed,  and  which  diffuses  itself  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
throughout  the  contents  of  the  crucible,  thus  causing  the 
"  dirt  "  which  makes  the  pinholes.  Aluminium  may  carry  a 
very  large  percentage  of  zinc,  which  has  only  a  melting  point 
of  425°  C.,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  7,  which  is 
roughly  three  times  that  of  aluminium.  Zinc  has  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  rarely  pure,  usually  containing  lead,  tin, 
iron,  and  arsenic,  so  that  impurity  of  aluminium  castings  may 
at  times  be  traceable  to  the  zinc  used  as  alloy,  and  especially 
will  this  be  so  if  it  carry  a  high  percentage.  However,  it  follows 
that  our  first  concern  must  be  to  melt  aluminium  cautiously, 
so  that  that  condition  of  fluidity  best  suited  for  pouring  may 
be  intercepted  at  the  right  moment.  After  all,  nothing  but 
experience  will  teach  a  man  how  to  mould,  melt  metals, 
and  cast  at  the  right  temperature,  three  of  the  principal 
factors  in  the  production  of  all  metals  that  are  cast,  whether 
they  be  white  or  yellow. 

ALUMINIUM  CASTINGS  AND   ALLOYS 

What  are  known  as  aluminium  castings  are  every  day  coming 
more  and  more  into  use  for  industrial  purposes,  and  yet  this 
metal,  generally  speaking,  is  as  much  an  alloy  as  brass  is  an 
alloy  of  copper.  In  point  of  fact,  aluminium  is  mixed  with 
zinc,  the  latter  at  times  amounting  to  as  much  as  30  per  cent, 
of  the  whole,  so  that  it  is  hardly  correct  to  speak  of  all 
wares  made  from  such  a  material  as  aluminium  castings. 
We  might  as  well  speak  of  all  brass  for  pouring  castings  as 
being  copper  castings,  since  copper,  as  a  rule,  is  the  pre- 
dominant constituent  of  brass  alloys  for  machinery  castings. 

The  increased  and  extended  uses  of  this  metal  during  the 
last  few  years,  both  as  an  alloy  with  other  metals  and  the 
product  aluminium  castings,  have  now  established  aluminium 
founding  as  a  branch  of  the  foundry  industries  of  Great 
Britain.  Truly  a  somewhat  marvellous  expansion  with  a 
metal  which  but  a  comparatively  few  years  ago  was  very 

Q  2 


228  FACTS  ON   GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

much  confined  to  the  experiments  of  the  chemist  in  the 
^aboratory !  Its  field  is  unlimited  because  of  its  affinity  for 
other  metals,  low  specific  gravity,  anti-frictional  qualities,  and 
silvery-white  colour,  for  which  it  is  much  admired  in  the 
many  ornamental  and  useful  fittings  to  which  it  has  of  late 
been  applied. 

Aluminium  compares  favourably  in  price  with  the  other 
finer  metals  for  machinery  castings,  and  although  it  should 
continue  to  keep  twice  the  price  of  copper  (the  chief  factor 
of  brass)  which  is  its  greatest  opponent,  it  will  under  such 
prices  work  out  considerably  cheaper  than  any  brass  alloy 
suitable  for  the  castings  referred  to.  Bulk  for  bulk  the 
weights  of  aluminium  and  copper  are  approximately  as 
three  is  to  one;  consequently,  for  one  casting  in  copper 
three  such  castings  can  be  produced  from  the  same  weight 
of  aluminium. 

Eaw  aluminium,  although  fairly  near  the  possible  100  of 
purity,  would  not  be  suitable  for  castings,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  pure  aluminium  castings. 
Hence,  in  a  commercial  sense  it  is  difficult  for  the  uninitiated 
to  decide  the  true  value  of  graded  aluminium  metals  from 
an  £  s.  d.  point  of  view.  Therefore,  its  pecuniary  value  from 
the  raw  metal  price  will  be  reduced  in  proportion  to  whatever 
zinc  it  contains  ;  and  when  we  consider  the  market  value 
of  these  metals,  which  is  as  seven  is  to  one,  no  further 
explanation  is  necessary  here.  But  apart  from  this,  the 
addition  of  zinc,  tin,  nickel,  or  even  copper,  is  common 
practice,  and  necessarily  affects  the  quality  of  the  resulting 
"  aluminium  castings." 

The  compounding  of  aluminium  alloys,  which  can  be 
applied  to  many  industrial  processes,  has  become  an  important 
business,  and  will  doubtless  go  on  increasingly  as  the  supplies 
of  metal  meet  the  demands  of  an  ever-increasing  output  of 
"  aluminium  castings."  And  if  the  prophecies  of  some 
eminent  metallurgists  of  the  present  day  happen  to  be  ful- 
filled, we  may  emerge  from  the  iron  and  steel  age  of  to-day 
into  that  of  aluminium  before  the  present  century  is  closed. 
We  have  it  on  high  authority  "  that  there  is  certainly  more 
aluminium  in  the  clay  of  the  earth  than  there  is  of  iron-stone 


ALUMINIUM  CASTINGS  AND  ALLOYS  229 

in  its  veins,"  so  that,  following  the  exhaustion  of  iron,  if  ever 
that  should  come,  there  is  the  hope  of  a  practically  inex- 
haustible supply  of  what  amongst  metals  was  but  a  few  years 
ago  unknown  in  the  castings  trade. 

While  there  is  undoubtedly  a  large  and  immediate 
demand  for  this  metal  in  the  "aluminium  casting"  trade, 
its  usefulness  as  a  reducing  agent  in  the  melting  of  metals 
for  all  kinds  of  castings  is  recognised  also  by  those  engaged 
in  the  industrial  manufacture  of  forge  and  foundry  products, 
but  it  is  not  right  to  speak  of  it  in  this  connection  as  a 
flux  in  the  sense  in  which  that  term  is  used  by  metallurgists. 
A  flux  is  a  substance  added  to  a  metal  or  metalliferous 
compound  with  a  view  of  purging  or  eliminating  foreign 
matter  into  a  fusible  slag,  thus  purifying  the  metal  acted 
upon. 

Eeducing  agents  have  the  power  of  deoxidising,  desulphuris- 
ing, and  assimilating  compounds.  The  judicious  employment 
of  a  reducing  agent  will  often  get  rid  of  the  "  boil,"  and 
with  a  minimum  of  heat  in  pouring  give  great  fluidity  and 
secure  the  advantage  of  the  lowest  skrinkage  possible  after 
pouring. 

Aluminium  ranks  third  in  malleability  and  sixth  in  ductility 
of  metals,  and  is  capable  of  carrying  a  high  percentage  of 
zinc  without  showing  the  shrinkage  associated  with  lead. 
Zinc  as  a  metal  for  alloying  with  aluminium  is  better  than 
tin,  the  use  of  the  latter  increasing  the  tendency  of  the 
castings  to  crack,  In  melting  the  usual  alloy  the  aluminium 
should  be  fused  before  the  zinc  is  introduced.  A  good  alloy  for 
electrical  castings  can  be  melted  with  47  parts  of  aluminium 
to  3  of  copper.  Nickel  aluminium  is  an  alloy  of  nickel  and 
copper,  together  with  aluminium. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  in  making  alloys  with  this 
metal  is  connected  with  aluminium  yellow  brass,  which  some 
say  will  not  stand  heavy  hydraulic  pressure ;  but  this 
complaint  is  doubtless  more  due  to  disproportionate  metal, 
undue  temperature,  and  shrinkage.  Yellow  aluminium 
brass  gives  a  high  percentage  of  waste,  which  may  run 
from  5  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent.,  because  of  the  high  percentage 
of  zinc  it  contains. 


230  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDKY  PRACTICE 

Aluminium  bronze  is  a  metal  difficult  to  machine,  on 
account  of  its  high  tensile  strength.  Its  constituent  parts 
are  1  of  aluminium  to  9  of  copper,  and  it  possesses  high 
qualities  as  an  anti-friction  metal.  When  used  in  the  casting 
of  valves  for  fittings  likely  to  be  subjected  to  water  pressure  there 
is  sometimes  trouble  from  sweating.  This  porosity  may  make 
itself  apparent  with  the  pressure  as  low  as  200  Ibs.  per  square 
inch.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  alloys  other  than  those  in 
which  aluminium  enters  exhibit  under  pressure  this  phe- 
nomenon, which  can  be  detected  easily  without  recourse 
to  the  test  of  the  hydraulic  ram.  It  is  simply  necessary  in 
testing  to  fill  the  valve,  fitting  or  pipe,  as  the  case  may  be, 
with  water  under  atmospheric  pressure,  and  if  there  be  the 
least  defect  due  to  want  of  homogeneity  or  to  shrinkage 
strains  in  any  casting  thus  treated,  such  will  reveal  itself  by 
sweating  or  dampness  on  the  outside  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 


"MALLEABLE  CAST." 

Many  founders  engaged  in  brass  and  iron  founding,  and 
especially  those  employed  at  small  work,  must,  at  some  time 
or  other,  have  wished  to  add  "  malleable  cast "  to  their 
business. 

Where  capital  is  scarcer  than  understanding,  experiments 
can,  and  should,  be  made  in  a  primitive  way  before  entering 
the  market  for  commercial  competition,  and  the  knowledge 
thus  acquired,  even  if  it  is  never  used  in  the  "  malleable 
casting  "  trade,  is  well  worth  the  comparatively  little  expense 
involved. 

A  small  cupola  such  as  is  common  in  many  large  foundries, 
and  in  small  country  shops  doing,  say,  30-cwt.  to  40-cwt.  heats, 
lends  itself  admirably  to  experimental  work,  and  if  the  castings 
sampled  can  be  annealed  elsewhere,  we  are  thus  practising  on 
lines  of  the  greatest  safety  and  economy.  Such  has  been  the 
procedure  followed  by  others  in  "  malleable  "  founding  in  its 
initial  stage,  and  from  this  anyone  will  know  how  far  he  may 
venture.  The  uninitiated  must  understand  that  the  process 
presents  more  difficulties  than  either  brass  or  iron,  as  will  be 
shown  further  on. 


"  MALLEABLE   CAST"  231 

Assuming,  then,  that  one  is  starting  for  the  first  time  this 
branch  of  founding,  herein  is  described  shortly  in  detail  what 
is  wanted  and  what  steps  have  to  be  taken.  This  class  of 
work  generally  consists  of  parts  of  agricultural  machinery, 
harness-room  fittings,  and  small  parts  for  machines  wl}ich 
had  formerly  to  be  forged  from  wrought  iron.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  "  malleable  cast  "  process  the  malleable 
forged  parts  referred  to  have  been  in  many  cases  supplanted 
by  "  malleable  castings,"  with  economies  alike  to  engineer 
and  buyer. 

Briefly  put,  the  work  is  divided  into  three  parts — moulding, 
mixing  of  the  metal,  and  the  annealing  of  the  castings. 
With  regard  to  the  moulding,  a  good  green-sand  moulder 
for  general  small  work  in  cast  iron  will  readily  adapt  himself 
to  "malleable  cast";  everything,  such  as  ramming  and 
moulding  for  cast  iron  in  a  general  way  is  the  same,  except, 
perhaps,  tbe  "  gating."  With  articles  where  square  corners 
occur,  good  filleting  must  be  arranged,  with  a  due  regard  to 
the  proportions  of  the  metal;  unless  this  is  done,  such  parts 
will  crack  and  spring.  All  gates  should  be  made  larger  than 
those  used  for  grey  iron. 

Metal. — As  to  the  metal  used  in  the  manufacture  of  malle- 
able cast,  "  charcoal  iron  "  gives  the  best  results,  but  as  a  rule 
it  is  too  expensive  to  use.  There  is,  however,  a  special  make 
of  iron,  called  "  Malleable-Bessemer  "  or  "  Malleable-coke  "  iron, 
which  is  the  principal  brand  used.  Ordinary  No.  1  hematite, 
mixed  with  malleable  and  unannealed  scrap  and  with  a  per- 
centage of  white  iron,  forms  a  mixture  which  may  with  safety 
be  used  for  most  ordinary  small  castings.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  add  too  much  malleable,  otherwise  the  carbon 
becomes  reduced  to  a  point  where  fluidity  is  sacrificed, 
thus  rendering  the  metal  useless  for  castings  of  ordinary 
design. 

Some  foundries  melt  their  metal  with  the  reverberatory 
furnace  and  the  open  hearth ;  others  use  the  cupola,  which  is 
asserted  to  be  the  cheapest  process.  But  iron  melted  in  the 
cupola  is  not  the  best,  and  test  bars  made  from  this  iron  are, 
as  a  rule,  a  few  thousand  pounds  less  per  square  inch  than 
those  produced  from  "  furnace  iron." 


232  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

Where  only  a  small  trade  is  done  the  "crucible  method  " 
of  melting  is  most  satisfactory.  By  this  process  we  get 
uniformity  of  heat,  and  the  purest  of  iron  possible,  besides 
avoiding  the  expense  due  to  extraordinary  wastage  of  the 
cupola  lining  by  the  excessive  heat  necessary  for  melting  a 
malleable-cast  mixture  in  the  cupola.  Those  who  desire  to 
add  this  branch  of  founding  to  their  existing  iron  trade  busi- 
ness would  undoubtedly  find  the  "  crucible  process  "  the  most 
convenient  way.  to  produce  the  cheapest  and  best  malleable 
castings.  The  chimney  necessary  for  the  annealing  furnace 
may  be  utilised  for  the  crucible  furnaces  also. 

Annealing. — The  process  of  annealing  presents  many 
problems  to  the  would-be  "  malleable  cast "  founder.  It  is 
the  point  at  which  most  failures  occur,  chiefly  owing  to  the  use 
of  improvised  annealing  ovens.  Unless  the  foundry  master  is 
prepared  to  go  to  the  expense  of  a  suitable  oven,  he  had 
better  leave  the  notion  of  malleable-cast  jobbing  severely 
alone. 

If,  however,  a  chimney  is  at  command  the  expense  is 
not  so  very  great ;  all  that  is  to  be  done  is  to  build  the 
oven  and  connect  by  a  suitable  flue.  The  best  way  to  set 
about  this  part  of  the  work  is  to  engage  a  bricklayer  with 
experience  in  building  furnaces,  and  although  such  a  man 
may  cost  more  at  the  outset,  in  the  end  his  services  will 
prove  cheapest. 

This  process  involves  the  heating  of  castings  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  castings  are  placed  in  cast-iron  boxes  and 
packed  with  iron  ore  or  "  mill  cinder,"  care  being  taken  to 
place  them  so  that  no  two  articles  shall  touch  one  another, 
and  thus  obviate  fusion  when  the  maximum  of  heat  is  attained 
in  the  oven.  The  time  for  annealing  is  indefinite,  and  can 
only  be  determined  by  the  work  to  be  done,  that  is  to  say,  by 
the  thickness  of  the  castings  packed  in  the  boxes.  Of  course, 
all  ovens  have  peculiarities  of  their  own,  and  the  castings 
requiring  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  must  be  exposed  to  the 
warmest  parts  of  the  oven,  while  others  of  a  lighter  grade 
should  be  placed  in  positions  likely  to  afford  the  heat  expected 
and  required. 

From   this  point  careful  manipulation  is  requisite,  other- 


PRACTICAL   METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY         233 

wise  the  goods  may  be  burned  or  calcined  instead  of  being 
annealed.  Nothing  but  practice  and  experience  can  help 
here,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  hurry  the  heat ; 
therefore  two  or  three  days  is  quite  usual  for  getting  the 
oven  up  to  heat,  and  altogether  ten  or  eleven  days  is 
regarded  by  some  as  the  time  necessary  for  the  operation 
of  annealing  "  malleable  cast." 

At  the  time  the  fire  is  extinguished,  the  damper  or  dampers 
must  be  closed  down,  and  the  oven  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  no 
air  being  admitted  into  the  inside  of  the  oven ;  and  assuming 
normal  temperature  outside,  four  days  should  be  about  the 
time  for  "  opening-up  "  after  ceasing  firing.  The  hard  castings 
thus  annealed  should  be  converted  to  the  proper  temper  of 
"malleable  cast,"  and  a  good  annealed  casting  should  not 
have  over  "05  or  *10  per  cent,  combined  carbon  remaining  in 
it.  Any  defective  annealed  casting  can  be  readily  detected  by 
its  brittleness,  but  nothing  short  of  long  experience  will  enable 
a  founder  to  anneal  properly  and  decide  when  a  casting  is 
over-annealed. 


PRACTICAL  METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY 

It  is  now  very  generally  realised  that  a  sound  general 
metallurgical  training  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  foundry- 
man  if  he  is  to  maintain  his  position,  for  however  great  may 
be  a  man's  practical  knowledge  and  experience  gained  in  the 
foundry,  he  cannot  hope  indefinitely  to  compete  successfully 
against  another  with  equally  good  practical  experience,  who 
also  clearly  understands  the  scientific  principles  upon  which 
his  art  is  based.  Besides  what  is  usually  included  in  the 
subject  of  metallurgy,  an  adequate  training  in  the  elementary 
principles  of  chemistry,  physics  and  mechanics  is  essential, 
for  without  this  it  is  often  difficult  for  the  student  of  metal- 
lurgy to  understand  and  appreciate  the  value  of  the  theoretical 
side  of  his  subject.  At  the  same  time  a  practical  man 
however  unfortunately  he  may  be  situated  in  the  matter  of 
opportunities  for  scientific  education  can,  if  he  has  the  mind, 
obtain  for  himself  a  fair  knowledge  of  how  this,  that  or  the 
other  constituent  in  metal  .may  operate  under  certain  conditions 


234  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

for  good  or  evil,  and  thereby  inform  himself  on  one  of  the 
most  cardinal  points  which  go  to  make  a  successful  founder. 
Theory,  in  itself,  will  never,  in  the  author's  opinion,  adapt 
suitable  metals  for  castings,  without  a  good  grounding  in 
all  that  pertains  to  the  fundamentals  of  practical  foundry 
practice.  The  behaviour  of  metals  during  their  passage 
from  the  iluid  condition  right  through  all  stages  of  cooling 
until  they  finally  reach  atmospheric  temperature, "  adaptation," 
"temperatures  of  pouring"  and  "position  of  casting"  are 
questions  at  times  of  vital  importance,  and  are  essential 
parts  of  "practical  metallurgy  in  the  foundry." 

Pig-iron  Brands  and  their  Composition. — Those  brands  of 
pig  metal  that  are  classed  as  "  grey,"  are  regarded  as  the 
most  suitable  for  the  foundry  trade  of  grey  iron  castings,  and 
are  usually  classed  in  this  grade  and  numbered  from  1  to 
4.  But  in  some  cases  the  numbering  of  brands  produced 
at  the  same  ironworks  goes  up  to  No.  8,  or  even  9  and 
10.  This  numbering  of  brands  is  practically  determined 
from  the  appearances  presented  by  the  freshly-fractured 
surfaces,  a  certain  number  of  pigs  being  taken  from  different 
parts  of  the  "cast"  at  the  respective  furnaces  for  this 
purpose.  Gradation,  being  mainly  attributed  to  colour, 
texture,  and  uniformity  of  lustre,  the  largest  grained  or 
most  coarsely  crystalline  metal  on  the  "  break,"  with  its 
graphitic  dark  grey  colour,  denotes  at  once  a  metal  that  is 
soft  and  fluid,  and  in  foundry  parlance,  is  the  metal  capable 
of  carrying  the  largest  amount  of  scrap  in  mixing  for  the 
general  'work  of  a  grey  iron  founder's  castings. 

Beyond  No.  4  pig  metal,  (and,  say,  more  than  twenty-five  years 
ago),  it  was  commonly  regarded  that  numbering  should  cease, 
and  "  mottled  "  and  "  white  "  were  the  terms  employed  to  classify 
iron  which  passed  out  of  the  colour  of  grey  into  the  shades 
of  white.  But  present-day  practice  has  determined  a  rotation 
of  numbers  according  to  colour  and  density.  The  darkest 
grey  being  No.  1,  the  progression  is  upwards  by  degrees  or 
shades  of  colour,  the  real  white  being  reached  about  No.  8, 
but  some  "brand"  after  this  as  glazed  and  glazed  white,  or 
Nos.  9  and  10,  every  number  thus  recorded  giving  an  analysis 
peculiarly  its  own. 


PEACTICAL   METALLUEGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY         235 


The  following  are  a  few 'of  the  analyses  of  English  pig 
metals : — 

STANTON  IRON  WORKS,  LIMITED,  NEAR,  NOTTINGHAM. 
Brand— "  Stanton." 


— 

G.  C. 

c.  c. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  1  foundry  .       V     ;  •  . 

3-38 

0-06 

3-24 

0-028 

1-20 

0-49 

2 

2-85 

0-05 

3-50 

0-029 

1-02 

0-40 

„    3       ,          .     .-.V.--. 

3-25 

0-31 

3-39 

0-043 

1-16 

0-46 

»'.*.*          ... 

2-32 

0-67 

2-91 

0-065 

M9 

0-48 

Forge                .         .     .    . 

1-48 

1-26 

1-66 

0-094 

1-24 

0-38 

Mottled            .      •  .         . 

1-28 

0-85 

0-97 

0-200 

0-85 

0-15 

Tiger                 .    -     .    '      . 

1-25 

1-40 

1-24 

0-300 

1-22 

0-23 

White             ,.     -.  >.«>••  . 

0-60 

1-70 

0-47 

0-410 

1-08 

0-13 

DURHAM. — BELL     BROTHERS,    LIMITED,     CLARENCE 
MIDDLESBROUGH. 

Brand — "  Clarence." 
(Approximate. ) 


IRON     WORKS, 


— 

G.  C. 

c.  c. 

Si. 

S. 

P. 

Mn. 

No.  1  foundry  . 

3-30 

0-15 

2-8 

0-030 

1-52 

0-60 

„    3       ,, 

3-20 

0-18 

2-50 

0-035 

1-52 

0-60 

.,4       ,,         , 

3-00 

0-48 

2-31 

0-075 

1-55 

0-50 

.,    4  forge       . 

2-90 

0-62 

1-53 

0-142 

1-50 

0-45 

Mottled    .        .  '     . 

2-30 

0-87 

1-31 

0-153 

1-50 

0-33 

White  '   .        ... 

Trace 

3-10 

0-250 

0-250 

1-52 

0-30 

Silicious  .         .        ".; 

3-30 

Trace 

0-018 

0-016 

1"55 

0-70 

YORKSHIRE   (NORTH  HIDING). — BOLCKOW,   VAUGHAN   &   Co., 
LIMITED,  MIDDLESBROUGH. 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

P. 

Mn. 

No.  1        .                  . 

3-00 

o-io 

3-00 

0-03 

0-05 

1-00 

,,2      ..         .    .     . 

3-30 

0-15 

2-81 

0-05 

0-05 

0-95 

,,    3        .... 

3-25 

0-20 

2-60 

0-06 

0-05 

0-95 

"  Cleveland,"  No.  3 

3-37 

o-io 

3-33 

0-05 

1-51 

0-70 

"  Clay  Lane,"  No.  3 

3-24 

0-18 

3-21 

0-05 

1-52 

0-49 

"Clay  Lane,"  White 

o-io 

1-30 

1-30 

0-045 

1-53 

0-30 

236 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


Moss    BAY    HEMATITE    IRON     COMPANY,     LIMITED,     WORKINGTON, 

CUMBERLAND. 

Brand—"  Moss  Bay." 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  1  B.  .        .        . 

3-60 

(HO 

3-00 

o-oi  { 

0-03- 
0-04 

|  0-70 

„    2B.  .         .       ., 

3-50 

0-15 

2-50 

0-02 

0-04 

0-70 

,,    3  B.  .         .         . 

3-30 

0-25 

2-00 

0-04 

0-04 

0-64 

Forge  3    . 

3-00 

0-35 

1-70 

0-07 

0-04 

0-50 

„      o    .         .         . 

2-80 

0-45 

1-30 

o-io 

0-04 

0-50 

THE   STAVELEY  COAL  AND  IRON  COMPANY,  LIMITED. 
Brand — "  Staveley." 


— 

G   C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  1  foundry  . 

3-45 

0-15 

3-20 

o-oi 

1-50 

0-80 

,      2       „ 

3-30 

0-25 

2-92 

0-02 

1-50 

0-80 

,     3       „ 

3-20 

0-30 

2-52 

0'03 

1-50 

1-75 

,     4       „ 

3-05 

0-40 

2-33 

0-04 

1-50 

0-70 

,     4  grey  forge       . 

2-90 

0-55 

2-30 

0-05 

1-50 

1-70 

,     4  forge 

2-70 

0-65 

2-00 

0-08 

1-45 

0-60 

Mottled   .... 

1-18 

1-80 

0-80 

0-18 

1-40 

0-50 

White      .... 

0-20 

2-90 

0-50 

0-25 

l'4() 

0'30 

Glazed     .... 

— 

— 

4-50 

0-03 

— 

~ 

SOUTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  AND  WORCESTERSHIRE. — T.  &  J.  BRADLEY  & 
SONS,  LIMITED,  DARLASTON  BLAST  FURNACES,  DARLASTON. 

Brand—"  All  Mine  "  (Medium  Quality). 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

P. 

Mn. 

No.  1   .... 

3-50 

Trace 

3-50 

0-025  ; 

i 

0-09 

„  2   .... 
„  3 

3-20 
2-70 

0-25 
0-75 

3-00 
2-30 

0-040 
0-050 

0-90 

to  -v 

0-090 

0-087 

„  4   .... 

2-50  |  0-90 

2-00 

0-070 

-  to  -\ 
1  -00 

0-085 

,,5   .    . 

2-10 

1-20 

1-70   0-080 

0-086 

,,  « 

1-60 

1-60 

1-50 

0-080 

I 

0-080 

PRACTICAL  METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY 


237 


SOUTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  AND  WORCESTERSHIRE. — T.  &.  J.  BRADLEY  & 
Soxs,  LIMITED,  DARLASTON  BLAST  FURNACES,  DARLASTON.— Contd. 

Brand—4'  IXL  All  Mine  "  (Best  Quality). 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  1  H.  B. 

3-60 

Trace 

2-80 

0-025 

0-40 

1-00 

„  2  H.  B.   .   !  .. 

3-25 

0-30 

2-50 

0-040 

0-40 

1-10 

,,  3H.  B.  .    I 

2-80 

0-70 

2-10 

0-060 

0-38 

1-05 

„  4  C.  B.   .    .    . 

2-50 

0-90 

1-20 

0-070 

0-37 

1-00 

„  5  0.  B.   .    .    . 

2-00 

1-30 

1-00 

0-080 

0-37 

0-95 

,,  6  0.  B.   . 

1-50 

1-70 

0-90 

0-085 

0-35 

0-90 

YORKSHIRE  (WEST  RIDING). — THE  FARNLEY  IRON  COMPANY,  LIMITED, 

LEEDS. 

Brand — "  Farnley  "  (Best  Yorkshire  Iron). 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

Cold  Blast,  No.  5      . 

3-12 

0-29 

1-03 

0-09 

Trace 

0-46 

LlLLESHALL  COLD  BLAST  IRON. 

Brand—"  Lilleshall  Lodge." 


— 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5, 
ordin- 
ary. 

No.  5, 
chilling. 

Hard, 
chilling. 

Mottled. 

White. 

Graphite 

carbon    . 

3-32 

3-20 

2-58 

2-60 

2-62 

2'50 

2-42 

1-50 

•35 

Combined 

carbon     . 

•12 

•25 

•48 

•60 

•55 

•65 

•68 

1-25 

2-25 

Silicon 

2-00 

1-80 

1-72 

1-40 

1-30 

1-00 

•90 

•60 

•50 

Sulphur 

•03 

•04 

•06 

•08 

•10 

•12 

•13 

.•18 

•23 

Manganese 

1-25 

1-15 

•93 

•84 

•80 

•65 

•60 

•45 

•35 

Phosphorus 

•55 

•56 

•56 

•56 

•40 

•57 

•57 

•58 

•60 

FACTS   ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

LlLLESHALL  HOT   BLAST  IllON. 

Brand— "Lilleshall  H.  B." 


No.  5, 

Hard, 



No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

not 

— 

not 

Mottled. 

White. 

chilling. 

chilling. 

Graphite 

carbon     . 

3-15 

3-05 

2-84 

2-44 

2-50 

— 

2'20 

1  -30 

•25 

Combined 

carbon    . 

•15 

•30 

•40 

•50 

•60 

— 

•70 

1-20 

2-10 

Silicon 

2-50 

2-30 

2-10 

1-80 

1-50 

— 

1-30 

•90 

•50 

Sulphur 

•03 

•04 

•05 

•07 

•09 

— 

•12 

•17 

•23 

Manganese 

1-30 

1-10 

•90 

•80 

•80 

— 

•50 

•35 

•25 

Phosphorus 

•72 

•74 

•74 

•73 

•70 

~ 

'75 

•76 

'77 

M.  &  W.  GRAZEBROOK,  DUDLEY.— NETHERTON  IRON  WORKS, 
NEAR  DUDLEY. 


—     .  1 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

P. 

Mn. 

No.  1     . 

2-70 

•32 

1-6 

•01 

•60 

•76 

2      .      '  .'• 

2-65 

•35 

1-35 

•03 

'57 

•72 

3      . 

2-55 

•40 

1-16 

•06 

•54 

•70 

4      . 

2-45 

•50 

1-00 

•08 

•50 

•64 

5      . 

2-34 

•56 

•90 

•10 

•50 

•60 

5H. 

2-25 

•60 

•80 

•14 

•45 

•55 

Low  MOOR  IRON  WORKS,  BRADFORD,  YORKS. 
Brand — "  Low  Moor  "  (Best  Yorkshire  Iron). 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  1 

2-940 

•590 

1-324 

•042 

•362 

1-096 

„    2        . 

2-960 

•560 

1-389 

•050 

•398 

1-065 

,,3        .         . 

3-060 

•550 

1-335 

•049 

•367 

•808 

„    4        . 

2-870 

•680 

1-154 

•064 

•384 

•899 

„    o        . 

2-570 

•810 

•736 

•089 

•386 

•839 

PRACTICAL  METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY 


239 


The   following   are  also   a  few  of  the  analyses  of  Scotch 

pig  irons : — 

Brand — "  Glengarnock." 
(Approximate.) 


—    • 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  3,  hard. 

.  • 
Graphite  carbon. 

3-50 

3-25 

3-25 

3-10 

Combined  carbon 

•20 

•25 

•30 

•35 

Silicon         .         .    ~    4         , 

3-50              3-00 

2-50 

2-00 

Sulphur       .         .         .  ,      . 

•04                -05 

•05 

•06 

Phosphorus          .       '.-',. 
Manganese 

•60 
1-10 

•60 
1-10 

•60 
1-10 

•60 
1-10 

Brand — "  Carnbroe.'' 
(Approximate.) 


— 

Xo.  1. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

Graphite  carbon     >  "..         .    '     .  : 
Combined  carbon       »         . 
Silicon        ... 

3-60 
•15 
3-50 

3-30 
•30 

2-60 

3-20 
•40 
2-10 

Sulphur     .         .      /.     ...  Y 
Phosphorus        .        ~. 
Manganese        .....         . 

•03 
•90 
1-20 

•04 
•90 
1-10 

•06 
•90 

•92 

CARBON  COMPANY,  CARRON  IRON  WORKS,  CARRON. 
Brand— "  Carron." 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

P. 

Mil. 

NO.  i   '  .      .      .  .   » 

3-500 

•140 

2-800 

•035 

1-000 

1-000 

,     2                 . 

3-460 

•200 

2-275 

•045 

1-000 

•995 

,     3,  soft        .         J       . 

3-350 

•180 

2-650 

•038 

•999 

1-000 

,     3,  foundry          .  '    ;  . 

3-350 

•200 

2-150 

•060 

1-000 

•908 

,     3,  close      .        .:      •  . 

3-170 

•280 

1-750 

•065 

1-005 

•850 

,     3,  hard       .         •. 

3-160 

•300 

1-570 

•070 

1-010 

•800 

JAMES  DUNLOP  &  Co.,  LIMITED,  CLYDE  IRON  WORKS,  TOLCROSS, 

GLASGOW. 

Brand— "Clyde." 

(Approximate.) 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

P. 

Mn. 

No.  3 

3-2 

•8 

2-5  to  3-5 

•03  to  '05 

•4  to  '6 

•43 

240  FACTS  ON   GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

Brand — "  Moakland." 
(Approximate.) 


— 

G.  C. 

C.  C. 

Si. 

s. 

p. 

Mn. 

No.  3       . 

3 

1 

2-5 

•03 

•4 

•5 

The  properties  of  cast  iron  are  regulated  principally  by  the 
condition  of  the  carbon  present,  the  effect  of  other  elements 
such  as  silicon  and  sulphur  being  largely  an  indirect  one  in 
determining  what  that  condition  shall  be.  The  two  chief 
forms  in  which  carbon  occurs  in  cast  iron  are  graphite  and 
combined  carbon.  Carbon  in  the  free  state  in  the  form  of 
graphite  is  characteristic  of  all  grey  irons,  and  is  found  in  the 
form  of  black  lustrous  flakes  or  scales  of  varying  size.  Com- 
bined carbon  is  the  name  given  to  carbon  that  exists  chemically 
combined  with  the  iron  as  a  carbide  of  iron  having  the  formula 
Fe3C,  white  irons  containing  practically  all  their  carbon  in 
this  condition.  In  the  greyest  and  softest  irons  the  carbon 
is  present  almost  entirely  in  the  form  of  graphite,  and  as  the 
amount  of  combined  carbon  increases  and  graphite  decreases, 
the  iron  becomes  closer  grained,  harder  and  stronger.  When 
the  amount  of  combined  carbon  approaches  1  per  cent.,  the 
iron,  although  it  may  have  a  high  tensile  strength,  generally 
becomes  unduly  hard  for  most  purposes,  and  an  iron  having 
about  equal  quantities  of  graphite  and  combined  carbon  has 
a  mottled  fracture.  The  relative  amounts  of  graphite  and 
combined  carbon  in  a  cast  iron  are  determined  partly  by  the 
amount  of  the  different  impurities  present  and  partly  by  the 
rate  of  cooling.  The  impurities  commonly  found  in  cast  iron 
are  silicon,  sulphur,  manganese  and  phosphorus,  and  their 
effects  on  the  properties  of  cast  iron  are  as  follows  :— 

Silicon  causes  the  carbon  to  assume  the  graphitic  form  and 
thus  has  a  softening  effect.  Silicon  also  has  the  effect  of 
lowering  the  total  amount  of  carbon  in  the  iron,  and  with  more 
than  about  2  per  cent,  this  influence  usually  becomes  marked, 
the  iron  beginning  to  lose  its  strength  without  any  correspond- 
ing increase  in  softness.  Iron  cannot  under  any  ordinary  con- 
ditions hold,  when  solid,  more  than  a  certain  amount  (about 


PEACTICAL  METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY         241 

per  cent.)  of  carbon,  and  as  1  per  cent,  of  silicon  has  the 
power  of  replacing  about  0*45  per  cent,  of  carbon,  a  high  per- 
centage of  silicon  is  liable  to  lead  to  the  separation  of  kish 
before  or  just  at  the  commencement  of  solidification,  and  so 
produce  a  dirty  iron. 

Sulphur  has  a  very  powerful  effect  in  hardening  the  iron  by 
preventing  the  separation  of  graphite  and  keeping  the  iron  in 
the  combined  state.  Silicon  and  sulphur  thus  act  in  direct 
opposition  to  each  other,  and  it  is  to  a  great  extent  by  suitably 
varying  the  percentages  of  these  two  impurities  that  the  founder 
adapts  his  iron  to  the  particular  requirements  of  his  castings. 

Manganese  has  in  itself  a  tendency  to  make  the  carbon 
exist  in  the  combined  state,  and  so  harden  it  and  make  it 
chill  easily.  It  has,  however,  a  greater  affinity  for  sulphur 
than  iron  has,  and  since  sulphur,  when  combined  with  man- 
ganese, has  little  hardening  effect,  the  nett  result  of  manganese, 
when  not  present  to  the  extent  of  more  than  about  1  per  cent., 
is  to  give  a  soft  iron.  Manganese  thus  usually  plays  the  part  of 
a  softener  in  the  foundry,  especially  for  iron  high  in  sulphur. 

Phosphorus,  in  the  amount  in  which  it  is  usually  present 
in  foundry  irons,  has  no  very  marked  effect  on  the  condition  of 
the  carbon  as  compared  with  silicon,  sulphur  and  manganese, 
but  is  useful  in  giving  fluidity  and  lowering  the  melting  point 
of  the  iron.  It  forms  a  phosphide  with  the  iron  which  is  hard 
and  brittle,  and  this  hardness  and  brittleness  become  marked 
when  tbe  phosphorus  is  high,  so  that  highly  phosphoric  irons 
are  only  suitable  for  the  cheaper  class  of  castings  and  those 
of  intricate  design  where  strength  is  of  little  importance. 

In  addition  to  the  effect  of  the  impurities  mentioned,  the 
rate  of  cooling  has  a  very  great  influence  on  the  properties  of 
cast  iron,  since  the  carbon  has  a  tendency  to  exist  in  the  com- 
bined form  when  the  iron  solidifies  and  cools  quickly,  while 
on  the  other  hand,  slow  cooling  promotes  the  formation  of 
graphite.  The  rate  of  solidification  and  cooling  depend  to 
a  large  extent  on  the  section  and  size  of  the  casting.  Thus 
a  small  casting  of  thin  section  will  solidify  and  cool  very 
much  more  rapidly  than  a  large  one  of  thick  section ;  a 
metal,  therefore,  that  would  be  suitable  for  the  former  would 
probably,  if  used  for  casting  the  latter,  be  much  too  soft  and 

F.P.  R 


242  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

weak  owing  not  only  to  the  unnecessarily  large  proportion 
of  graphite  and  the  deficiency  of  combined  carbon,  but  also 
to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  graphite  present  would  be  of 
large  size,  this  large  graphite  also  having  the  tendency  to 
give  a  porous,  dirty  iron.  The  composition  of  the  iron, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  amount  of  silicon,  must  there- 
fore be  varied  so  that,  under  the  conditions  of  cooling  of  the 
particular  casting  which  is  to  be  made,  the  required  softness, 
strength  and  texture  may  be  obtained. 

There  is  one  very  important  property  of  iron,  viz.,  shrink- 
age, which  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  amount  and 
condition  of  the  carbon  present.  Other  things  being  equal 
the  shrinkage  depends  on  the  amount  of  graphite — the  greater 
the  amount  of  graphite  the  less  the  shrinkage ;  or,  in  other 
words,  generally  speaking  the  harder  and  denser  the  iron  the 
greater  the  shrinkage. 

Amongst  the  pig  irons  generally  used  in  the  foundry, 
Scotch  No.  1  is  usually  considered  to  be  the  greatest  "  scrap- 
bearer  "  on  account  of  its  high  percentages  of  silicon  and 
manganese,  and  by  careful  mixing,  regulation  of  temperature, 
and  in  some  cases  by  judicious  tempering,  good  castings  of 
any  sort,  frictional  or  anti-frictional,  may  be  produced  from 
most  of  the  common  Scotch  grey,  hot  blast  pig  irons  with 
perfect  safety.  English  common  grey  iron,  or  Middlesbrough 
iron  is  unsuitable  for  general  machinery  castings  on  account 
of  its  high  percentage  of  phosphorus.  Phosphoric  iron  does 
not  take  a  good  polish  when  cast  in  thick  sections,  but  is  all 
right  for  range  or  hollow  work  in  general,  since  the  rapid 
cooling  of  the  thin  sections  gives,  in  the  case  of  iron  with  high 
phosphorus,  the  density  and  polish  required  for  high-class 
range  metal  castings.  Middlesbrough  iron  also,  on  account 
of  its  high  phosphorus,  is  very  fluid  when  melted,  and  may 
be  poured  safely  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  is  possible 
with  an  iron  such  as  No.  1  Scotch. 

All  grey  brands  improve  on  remelting,  although  not  to  the 
extent  that  some  authorities  assert.  For  instance,  Gautier 
has  said  that  No.  1  Scotch  reached  its  maximum  of  strength 
at  the  eighth  melting,  and  Fairbairn  found  that  the  same 
point  was  reached  with  No.  3  pig  (Eglinton)  after  twelve 


PRACTICAL  METALLURGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY         243 

meltings.  From  a  very  lengthy  experience  of  using  the  latter 
pig  metal,  I  advisedly  say  this  is  not  correct  in  practice.  The 
varying  conditions  of  melting,  e.g.,  the  character  of  the  coke 
used  and  sections  of  metal  cast,  have  an  important  influence 
in  determining  the  number  of  meltings  an  iron  will  stand. 

Eernelting  other  brands,  such  as  hematite  and  cold  blast, 
should  not  be  resorted  to,  that  is  to  say,  if  the  founder  is 
getting  what  he  is  paying  for,  the  oxidation  during  remelting 
and  pouring  having  a  very  marked  effect  in  reducing  the 
fluidity  of  the  metal.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  every 
individual  melt  of  metal,  soft  or  hard,  decreases  fluidity 
and  intensifies  the  oxide  film  of  every  metal  in  its  fluid 
state  practically  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  times  it  is 
remelted,  this  decreased  fluidity  causing  an  increased  tendency 
to  "  cold  shut." 

Grey  pig  irons  vary  very  much  both  in  quality  and  price 
ranging  from  hard  to  soft  irons  at  prices  as  far  removed  from 
each  other  as  "  hot  blast  "  at  47s.  to  "  cold  blast  "  at  115s. 
per  ton,  at  the  time  of  writing.  Likewise  analyses  vary- 
considerably,  and  physical  tests  in  grey  pig  metals  may  be 
anything  between  23  cwts.  and  36  cwts.  in  a  transverse  test 
with  test  bars  2  ins.  by  1  in.  placed  at  3  ft.  centres.  Such 
are  the  wide  differences  in  the  varieties  of  what  is  commonly 
known  by  the  term  "  grey  pig  metal." 

White  iron  is,  comparatively,  rarely  used,  and  wherever 
melted  for  the  castings  trade,  it  is  usually  mixed  up  with  grey 
iron  for  chilled  castings  of  every  description,  or  castings 
required  for  anti-frictional  purposes,  and  in  the  compounding 
of  steel  and  "  malleable-  cast "  mixtures.  Wherever  used, 
this  metal  must  be  mixed  with  more  than  ordinary  care, 
otherwise  it  is  easy  to  make  a  mistake  because  of  its  difficulty 
in  mixing  thoroughly — evidence  of  which  is  to  be  found  too 
often  at  the  machining  of  those  castings  containing  a  well- 
selected  proportion  to  give  improved  density.  The  chief  con- 
stituent of  white  iron  is  combined  carbon,  this  at  times  being 
over  3  per  cent.,  and  if  backed  up  by  1J  per  cent,  manganese, 
at  once  accounts  for  the  hard  and  flinty  nature  of  white  iron 
combined  carbon  and  manganese  being  the  principal  "  hard- 
eners," for  steel  and  "  malleable-cast  "  castings. 

R  2 


244 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDEY  PEACTICE 


Mottled  Iron. — Practically  this  is  the  "  wedge  "  between 
grey  and  white,  and  those  knowing  how  to  work  the  one  need 
not  fear  the  other,  the  analyses  of  both  being  found  in  the 
previous  pages. 

Mechanical  Tests. — There  is  a  general  delicacy  in  dealing 
with  physical  or  mechanical  tests  of  the  different  brands  by 
different  iron  smelters  ;  and  for  reasons  which  may  be  obvious, 
we  do  not  dispute  the  fact.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  grey  irons, 
hot  and  cold  blast,  vary,  as  previously  stated,  from  23  cwts. 
to  40  cwts.  on  a  transverse  test  bar  3J  ft.  by  2  ins.  by  1  in., 
and  resting  on  suitable  supports  3  ft.  apart.  One  first-class 
firm  of  iron  smelters  register  their  tests  on  a  bar  of  the 
description  given  at  "  37  cwts.  for  '  cold  blast,'  and  '  hot 
blast'  28/32  cwts." 

The  following  tests,  transverse  and  tensile,  were  taken 
recently  by  the  writer  for  specific  purposes,  and  could  be 
applied  to  advantage  for  tests  in  general  machine  and  special 
pump  castings.  But  these  need  not  be  taken  as  standard  tests, 
because  many  good  irons  never  give  a  bar  to  dimensions  given 
above  26  cwts.  or  28  cwts.  as  the  breaking  transverse  test ; 
and  those  irons  that  are  thus  low  physically  are  most  reliable 
for  fluidity.  Consequently  their  adaptation  for  pipe  castings 
of  all  sections  is  much  in  evidence  amongst  founders  doing 
spherical  and  unpolished  work. 


Transverse  test  bars,  breaking  strain,  3  ft. 
centres,  and  calculated  to  2  ins.  by  1  in. 


Tensile  test  bars  taken  from  the  same  metals 

as  the    transverse    bars    herein    recorded. 

Dimensions  of  bar  to  sketch  as  illustrated 

at  Fig.  133. 


Breaking  weight 
in  Ibs. 

Deflection. 

Tons. 

Cwts. 

3,450 

•452 

10 

5 

3,500 

•470 

9 

18 

3,450 

•47-^ 

10 

10 

3,400 

•475 

9 

10 

3,480 

•485 

11 

10 

3,520 

•401 

11 

5 

3,440 

•397 

11 

10 

3,600 

•411 

9 

18 

3,380 

•388 

10 

7 

3,420 

•390 

10 

6 

PBACTICAL   METALLUKGY  IN  THE  FOUNDRY         245 

Fig.  138  is  a  common  type,  to  dimensions  given,  of  a  tensile 
bar,  and  the  tests  as  recorded  above  are  of  a  higber  standard 
than  those  common  to  tests  of  pig  iron  for  pipe   founding, 
these  being  usually  from  7  tons 
to   9   tons.     On  the  other  hand, 
tests   as  detailed  are   quite  good 
averages  for  machinery  castings 
in  pig  metal.  FlG<  183 

Metal  Mixing. — In  this  there  is 

practically  no  end  to  varieties  and  conditions,  and  from  this 
standpoint,  to  stipulate  any  brand  or  brands  in  preference  to 
others  and  the  proportion  of  scrap  would  not  serve  a  useful 
purpose.  The  foundation  in  this  work  of  metallurgy  in 
foundry  practice  is  a  knowledge  of  the  true  nature  of  metals 
chemically,  and  by  the  aid  of  this,  experience  will  assert  itself 
in  adapting  mixtures  suitable  to  the  varied  wants  of  the 
foundry. 

Chemistry  is  the  base  or  stepping-stone  to  foundry  metal- 
lurgy, whereby  we  ultimately  get  a  glimpse  of  the  functions 
performed  by  the  various  constituents  in  cast  iron.  However, 
it  is  not  always  a  question  of  the  best  metal  turning  out  the 
best  castings.  Thus  it  has  been  brought  about  by  experience 
that,  through  judicious  mixing,  control  of  temperature,  feeding, 
and  tempering,  castings  with  improved  internal  density  and 
capable  of  taking  a  superior  surface  polishing,  can  be  got  from 
inferior  brands,  to  the  disadvantage  of  superior  metals  where 
those  principles  are  not  observed  in  practice.  Such  knowledge 
of  metals  as  here  advanced,  wedded  to  foundry  practice,  will 
eventually  produce  the  highest  standard  of  workmanship 
possible  amongst  the  many  varieties  of  metals  in  general 
founding.  (See  articles,  pp.  23,  29, 32,  44,  63,  71, 79,  and  153.) 

THE  MELTING  POINTS  OF  METALS. 

"  Platinum  .  .  .  1,775°  C. 
Pure  iron  .  .  .  1,505°  C. 
Steel  .  .  about  1,400°  C.  (but  varies  with  percentage 

of  carbon  and  impurities). 
Nickel     ....     1,400°  C. 
Cast  iron          .         about     1,250°  C.  (but  varies  with  percentage 

of  carbon  and  impurities). 


246  FACTS  ON  GENERAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

THE  MELTING  POINTS  OF  METALS.—  ContfJ. 

Copper  (pure)  .  .•'  .  1,083°  C. 

Gold         .  .  .  .  1,064°  C. 

Silver       .  .  .  .961°  C. 

Aluminium  .  .  .  650°  C. 

Antimony  .  .  632°  C. 

Zinc         .  .  .  .  419°  C. 

Lead        .  ^  .  .  327°  C. 

Tin .         .  .  .  .  232°  C. 

Mercury .  .  .  .  -  39'7°  C." 

THE  BOILING  POINTS  OF  METALS. 

Iron         v  .     .         .  .  2,450°  C.1 

Copper     .  ...  .  2,310°  C.1 

Tin           .  .       -.,.  .  2,270°  C.1 

Silver       .  .         .  .  1,955°  C.1 

Aluminium  .         .  .  1,800°  C.1 

Lead        .  .         .  .  1,525°  C.1 

Antimony  .         .  .  1,440°  C.1 

Zinc         .  ...,:.  950°  C. 

Mercury.  .  ,    ".  .  358°  C. 

GENERAL  PATTERN  MAKING  FROM  A  MOULDER'S 
POINT  OF  VIEW 

To  work  a  pattern  shop  most  economically  it  goes  without 
saying  that  the  men  engaged  must  have  good  tools,  not  only 
those  that  constitute  the  recognised  "  kit "  of  a  pattern-maker, 
but  also  suitable  wood-working  machinery,  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction in  this  department  being  largely  determined  by  the 
machinery  with  which  it  is  equipped.  Up-to-date  shops  are 
provided  with  the  most  modern  machines  for  turning  out 
work  expeditiously,  and  the  employer  then  has  a  right  to 
expect  not  only  superior  workmanship,  but  an  output  com- 
mensurate with  the  cost  of  such  machine  tools. 

The  first  principle  to  be  observed  in  good  pattern  making 
is  well-seasoned  wood,  and  unless  this  is  attended  to,  the  best 
workmanship  of  the  pattern-maker  is  lost ;  a  pattern  made 
from  unseasoned  wood,  even  if  the  most  correct  principles  of 
pattern  making  be  observed,  is  of  very  little  use  to  the  moulder, 
especially  if  it  be  for  standard  castings  or  repeat  work  of  any 

1  H.  C.  Greenwood,  Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  1909,  A,  LXXXIL,  p.  396. 


PATTEKN  MAKING  FEOM  A  MOULDER'S  POINT  OF  VIEW    247 

kind.  As  a  result,  such  patterns  produce  bad  workmanship 
in  the  foundry,  not  to  mention  their  comparatively  short  life 
caused  by  the  abnormal  rapping  necessary  in  drawing  them 
from  the  sand  before  finishing  the  mould. 

With  this  brief  reference  to  general  practice  in  pattern 
making,  what  follows  will  be  based  purely  on  what  are 
considered  the  best  principles  of  pattern  making  from  a 
moulder's  point  of  view.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that 
materials  and  methods  must  be  a  question  of  conditions  and 
circumstances.  Hence  it  is  that  what  may  be  recognised  as 
good  practice  in  one  shop  or  locality,  may  not  adapt  itself  as 
the  most  economical  in  other  centres  of  founding  ;  because,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  and  as  has  been  previously  stated,  one  firm 
may  make  in  loam  what  another  would  mould  in  sand,  this 
in  itself  altering  details  entirely,  without  consideration  of 
pattern  shop  equipment  at  all.  On  the  other  hand  whether, 
for  example,  a  spur-wheel  should  have  double  cycloidal, 
involute,  or  epicycloidal  teeth  matters  not  in  the  pattern 
shop,  as  the  principle  of  pattern  making  for  those  castings 
remains  practically  the  same,  the  foreman  being  left  to 
direct  methods,  materials  and  workmanship.  Consequently 
the  cardinal  point  at  all  times  in  pattern  making  is  to  see 
that  a  pattern  is  made  inouldable,  and  on  the  most  approved 
principles  for  the  foundry,  based  on  the  lines  of  economy 
commensurate  with  the  quantity  required  to  be  made  off  any 
pattern.  But  as  a  principle  we  may  take  it  that  the  more 
money  that  i&  spent  in  the  pattern  shop  in  the  making  of 
good  patterns,  the  greater  will  be  the  reduction  of  costs  in 
the  foundry,  or  vice  versa.  It  is  all  a  question  of  good 
management  where  to  draw  the  line  in  the  departments  in 
question,  and  from  a  jobbing  moulder's  point  of  view  money 
is  frequently  lost  by  making  patterns  for  the  production  of 
castings,  which  might  just  as  well  have  been  moulded  by 
sweep  or  streakle  boards  in  loam. 

Iron  patterns  are  commonly  adopted  for  repetition  work — 
that  is  to  say,  castings  that  are  made  by  the  thousand — and 
wherever  the  use  of  these  patterns  is  possible,  the  highest 
efficiency  as  regards  economical  working  and  good  workman- 
ship is  assured.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that 


248  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

those  patterns  are  only  obtainable  by  first  having  a  pattern  in 
wood,  stucco,  or  other  material  to  cast  the  iron  pattern  from. 
It  will  be  obvious  that  in  the  casting  of  iron  patterns,  whatever 
material  is  chosen,  the  patterns,  as  referred  to,  must  be  pro- 
vided with  double  shrinkage,  so  that  the  castings  ultimately 
to  be  made  from  the  iron  patterns  will  come  out  when  cast, 
according  to  dimensions  or  specifications.  This  is  important, 
and  its  effect  is  emphasised  with  other  metals  than  iron,  where 
the  shrinkages  are  much  greater. 

A  bank-pipe  pattern  (Fig.  134)  is  a  cast-iron  pipe  pattern 
used  for  moulding  common  bank  pipes  in  green-sand,  and  the 
principal  precaution  to  be  observed  is  to  make  sure  that 
enough  metal  is  allowed  for  finishing  the  iron  pattern  to 
dimensions.  The  patterns  are  first  of  all  generally  made 
from  wood,  and  as  a  rule  are  turned  out  of  a  solid  piece  of 


FIG.  134. 

good  white  or  yellow  pine.  No  halving  or  jointing  of  these 
patterns  being  necessary  as  is  common  to  most  cylindrical 
pattern  making,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  larger  diameters 
at  least,  should  not  be  made  from  loam  "  bosses  "  by  a  duly 
qualified  core-maker;  and  by  this  method,  the  cost  of  the 
pattern  is  reduced  to  whatever  time  and  money  is  spent  in 
producing  the  loam  board  by  which  the  "  boss  "  is  made 
together  with  the  time  in  making  the  boss  pattern.  This  is 
simply  a  process  of  first  and  second  coating  a  loam  core  in  the 
usual  way,  and  after  the  second  coat  is  dried  and  while  it 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  it  should  be  "  tarred." 
The  tar  then  hardens  and  strengthens  the  loam  with  which  it 
is  made,  thus  practically  completing  a  boss  or  pattern  sub- 
stitute, thoroughly  adapted  for  the  moulding  of  cast-iron 
bank-pipe  patterns  of  the  diameters  suggested,  and  at  a  cost 
considerably  less  than  is  possible  with  somewhat  similar 
patterns  made  in  wood  (see  p.  92). 


PATTERN  MAKING  FROM  A  MOULDER'S  POINT  OF  VIEW    249 

These  patterns  should  be  cast  and  made  to  finish,  say,  from 
f  in.  to  J  in.  thick.  It  will  be  noticed  that  Fig.  134  is  a 
longitudinal  section  of  the  pipe  pattern  in  question,  this  view 
being  principally  employed  to  show  the  pouring  gate  J5, 
(Fig.  134),  which,  as  will  be  seen,  is  on  the  faucet  end  of  the 
pattern.  This  gate  B,  with  the  exception  of  the  vertical 
part  not  shown,  is  cast  on  the  pattern,  and  encircles  the 
core-bearing,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  on  the  illustration. 
Whether  such  a  pattern  as  illustrated  here  be  made  from  wood 
or  of  loam  as  suggested,  the  admission  gate  A  (Fig.  134) 
obviously  must  be  put  on  after  the  pattern  is  practically 
finished. 

The  simplest  way  to  make  this  admission  gate  A  (Fig.  134) 
is  to  get  a  flat  wooden  pattern  of  the  section  desired  for 
"  running  "  the  mould;  cast  this  in  lead,  and  coil  it  or  sprig 
it  on  to  the  bottom  side  of  the  pattern  according  to  the  dis- 
tance which  determines  the  size  of  gate  on  the  faucet  end  of 
the  pattern,  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  134).  When  this  has  been 
done,  we  have  completed  the  boss  or  pattern  for  moulding  a 
cast-iron  pipe  pattern  for  green-sand  bank-pipe  moulding. 

Bank-Pipe  Core-Boxes. — Core-boxes  made  for  this  class  of 
core  making  must  all  be  abnormally  strong,  so  as  to  withstand 
the  rough  usage  by  force  of  circumstances  to  which  they  are 
subjected  by  the  core-makers,  a  practice  of  core  making 
peculiar  to  the  work  of  bank-pipe  casting. 

These  core-boxes  are  of  cast  iron,  and  are  made,  of  course, 
from  wooden  patterns,  but  by  interchange  with  their  hinge 
pattern  attachments  and  other  staying  supports,  it  is  not 
necessary  in  making  these  patterns  to  have  more  than  one 
half  with  which  to  make  a  complete  cast-iron  core- box  for 
"  bank-pipe  moulding." 

The  core-boxes  for  9  ft.  length  castings  are  made  from 
1J  ins.  up  to  10  ins.  diameter.  Nevertheless,  these  boxes  are 
all  wrought  or  operated  by  hand,  and  in  the  opening  and 
closing  of  them  during  the  process  of  core  making  a  short 
lever  is  applied  through  the  hole  A,  as  seen  at  Fig.  135. 
The  hole  A,  as  referred  to,  materially  assists  in  throwing 
the  core-box  over  at  the  time  of  jointing  in  the  process 
of  ramming  the  core,  previously  to  finishing  it ;  the  hinges 


250  FACTS  ON  GENEBAL  EOUNDBY  PRACTICE 

meantime  keeping  all  correct  for  what  is  evidently  to  many  a 
novelty  in  core  making. 

Cores  of  this  class  are  all  made  on  strong  benches,  which 
facilitates  this  process  in  core  making,  and  no  machine  has  as 
yet  supplanted  this  method  for  speed,  good  workmanship,  and 
accuracy. 

The  core-boxes  being  made  in  halves  are  all  machined 
accurately  so  as  to  produce  pipes  internally  correct,  and  after 
marking  off  and  carefully  centering  the  halves,  the  hinges 
should  be  fitted  so  as  to  ensure  free  working,  and  close  face  to 
face  joints.  Thereafter,  bore  the  ends  for  a  short  distance. 
When  done,  the  rest  of  the  metal  should  be  machined  by 
planing.  This  plan  has  been  found  to  give  better  results 

than  boring  with  a  cutter  bar  the 
entire  length  of  these  core-box 
castings. 

The  extra  care  thus  taken  with 
pattern  and   core-boxes  for   bank- 
pipe  moulding  pays  for  itself  over 
and   over   again,  and    the   method 
FIG.  135.  of    machining    the    core-boxes    as 

suggested,    even    although   it   may 

appear  expensive,  is  a  guarantee  that  all  castings  made  there- 
from will  be  absolutely  straight  and  true,  resulting  in  the 
highest  possible  output  of  good  castings. 

Pit  Bogey-Wheel  Patterns. — Fig.  86  has  already  been  used 
to  illustrate  gating,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not 
again  be  used  to  illustrate  pattern  making,  and  at  the  same 
time  serve  to  illustrate  chilling  also,  A  being  the  chill ;  the 
rest  will  explain  itself.  These  wheels  may  be  moulded 
with  one,  two,  or  four  in  the  box,  but  no  matter  which 
number  is  adopted,  they  must  be  moulded  with  iron 
patterns,  either  with  "  turning-over  board,"  or  on  the  plate 
principle  of  moulding.  But,  whatever  principle  be  accepted, 
chills,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  86,  require  to  be  cast  from  a 
wooden  pattern  to  the  section  in  the  figure  referred  to.  In 
making  separate  wheel  patterns  and  chills,  briefly,  the  pattern 
for  the  chill  is  first  turned  up  in  the  lathe,  one  of  course  to 
each ;  thereafter  the  wheel  is  made  to  fit  the  chill,  all 


PATTERN  MAKING  FKOM  A  MOULDER'S  POINT  OF  VIEW    251 

according  to  specification,  and  as  chill  and  wheel  pattern  should 
shrink  very  nearly  alike,  both  ought  to  be  cast  as  soon  as 
possible  before  warping  or  twisting  sets  in  with  chill  or 
wheel  pattern.  Cast-iron  patterns  of  this  class,  before 
using,  should  be  rusted,  then  cleaned  thoroughly,  and  with  a 
workable  warmth  should  be  rubbed  and  brushed  up  with  bees- 
wax. Iron  patterns  so  treated,  whether  they  be  of  plain  or 
pinion-wheel  design,  will  draw  from  the  sand  as  well  as  the 
best  painted  and  varnished  wooden  patterns. 

Condenser  Patterns. — With  castings  of  this  type  (see  "Gates 
and  Gating,"  Fig.  88),  we  are  at  once  confronted  with  three 
distinct  methods  of  pattern  making,  and  for  the  various  types 
of  these  castings  each  of  the  methods  may  appropriately  be 
considered  in  this  division  of  pattern  making.  These  may  be 
classified  thus  : — (1)  Building  a  boss  by  brick  and  loam,  and 
thereafter  planting  the  branches,  according  to  the  drawing  of 
the  casting,  to  be  made  during  the  process  of  cope  building  as 
time  and  convenience  demand.  (2)  Crate-frame  pattern  with 
no  sweeping  of  body,  but  branches  fixed  in  the  usual  way. 
(3)  The  streakle  board  set  to  spindle  according  to  loam 
practice,  cope  and  core  built  separately,  and  the  branches 
planted  to  drawing  according  to  loam  moulding  practice. 

In  the  above  are  shown  three  distinct  methods  of  pattern 
making,  and  as  everything  in  general  workshop  practice  in 
the  end  resolves  on  £.  s.  d.,  it  means  at  times  not  a  little 
thinking  to  determine  which  is  the  most  economical  to  all 
concerned.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  where  the 
moulder  can  have  a  pattern-maker  in  attendance,  the  third 
method,  is  by  far  the  best,  no  matter  from  what  view-point 
we  look  at  it. 

In  the  first  method  we  have  got  to  consider  the  amount  of 
brick  and  loam  the  boss  (which,  of  course,  is  the  body  pattern) 
would  require,  and  the  time  it  would  take  to  make  it.  When 
all  is  built,  and  roughed  with  loam  and  skinned  up,  it  has  got 
to  be  painted  over  with  clean  water  blackwash  (preferably 
from  wood  blacking),  which  is  applied  so  as  to  secure  the  boss 
from  clogging  to  the  cope  to  be  built  against  it.  Wherever 
this  practice  is  adopted,  all  branches  should  be  a  little  longer 
than  actual  measurement  from  "  boss  "  body  to  their  respective 


252  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

faces,  say,  J  in.  This  admits  of  indenting  these  branches 
into  the  body,  which  becomes  a  factor  of  security  in  so  far  as 
keeping  them  in  their  places  during  the  operation  of  building 
the  cope  is  concerned. 

Second,  with  a  "  delf-crate  pattern  "  (foundry  parlance)  the 
amount  of  wood  required  for  this,  the  slimmest  pattern  con- 
struction possible,  means  a  bill  for  cost  of  wood  that,  even  to 
an  experienced  man,  is  somewhat  astonishing.  Nevertheless 
it  has  been  done,  and  what  has  been  previously  performed 
may  be  repeated,  but  the  practice  is  economically  bad.  Briefly 
put,  the  materials  used  for  the  loam  boss  are  all  taken  up 
at  the  building  of  the  core ;  it  is  only  a  question  of  cleaning 
the  brick  thus  used,  and  with  the  remilling  of  the  loam  more 
than  enough  material  is  secured,  from  what  previously  con- 
stituted the  boss,  for  the  building  of  the  core.  This  may 
appear  fairly  plausible,  but  the  "  boss  principle  "  of  moulding 
loam  condensers  (Fig.  88)  of  the  type  herein  referred  to  is 
not  at  all,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  commendable — at  least, 
wherever  the  pattern-maker  can  be  in  attendance  for  the 
placing  of  the  branches  during  the  building  operations  of 
the  cope,  as  has  been  previously  stated. 

However,  delf-crate  patterns  in  many  forms  and  types  are 
used  to  advantage,  but  not  of  the  cylindrical  section  and  size 
herein  considered.  But  in  the  case  of  oval  sections  and  such 
like  where  only  "  one  off"  is  wanted,  their  utility  is  an  advan- 
tage, as  a  rule,  both  in  practice  and  economy. 

Third,  by  building  cope  and  core  by  the  usual  methods  of  loam 
moulding,  we  at  once  get  rid  of  the  innumerable  composite 
parts  of  a  delf-crate  pattern.  And  again,  the  materials,  brick 
and  loam,  and  the  cost  of  making  the  "boss"  for  the  body 
pattern  of  this  job  all  combine  to  prove  the  utility  of  making 
these  condensers,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  88,  with  cope  and  core, 
and  streakled  or  swept  according  to  the  usual  method  of  loam 
moulding.  But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  third  proposi- 
tion or  method  necessitates  intermittent  attendance  from  the 
pattern-maker  throughout  the  operation  of  building  the  cope, 
so  as  to  place  the  branches  in  their  proper  places,  as  the  cope 
step  wise  is  built  upwards  towards  its  finish. 

All  that  has  been  referred  to  is  included  in  the  cost  of  the 


PATTERN  MAKING  FROM  A  MOULDER'S  POINT  OF  VIEW    253 

body  pattern  for  the  condenser  in  question,  and  it  must  now 
be  considered  that,  no  matter  of  what  form  or  section  the 
body  of  the  mould  may  be,  the  question  of  cost  of  the 
accompanying  branches  remains  practically  the  same. 
Nevertheless,  the  different  methods  mentioned  necessitate 
different  conditions  in  practice : — (1)  For  a  boss  we  require 
to  make  the  branches  about  J  in.  longer  so  as  to  admit  of  this 
amount  of  indentation  from  the  branches  to  the  boss,  and 
thereby  secure  them  from  shifting  in  the  process  of  building. 
(2)  With  the  crate  pattern  as  suggested,  their  exact  lengths 
from  centre  of  body  to  their  faces  are  required,  and  they 
must  be  fastened  according  to  general  practice.  (3)  For 
planting  or  placing  in  the  upward  movement  while  building, 
as  previously  referred  to,  all  branches  must  be  kept  short 
enough  to  guarantee  absolute  clearance  for  the  cope  board, 
throughout  the  building  operations  of  the  cope  from  start 
to  finish. 

Whether  the  cope  or  core  take  precedence  in  building  is 
matter  for  the  moulder  to  decide  ;  either  way  is  only  an 
inversion  of  detail  to  the  pattern-maker  without  additional 
cost  to  this  department. 

All  that  a  pattern-maker  requires  when  in  attendance  on 
loam  moulders  are  a  special  straight-edge,  square  and  plumb- 
line,  the  first  having  a  hole  in  its  centre  to  suit  the  spindle. 
In  addition,  it  will  be  of  advantage  when  using  such  a  straight- 
edge at  the  setting  of  these  branches  if  the  centre  line  be 
drawn,  and  also  a  section  of  the  metal  at  both  ends  to  the 
diameters  wanted. 

Further,  to  simplify  the  placing  of  branches  and  other 
attachments,  the  cope  board  should  have  the  bottom  surfaces 
of  all  these  drawn  on  it  very  distinctly,  so  that  when 
reaching  those  lines,  all  the  moulder  has  to  do  is  to  screw 
a  small  chamfered  board  on  to  the  cope  board,  and  by  this 
means  he  makes  or  sweeps  a  flat  surface  sufficient  to  steady 
any  branch  or  projection  exactly  on  the  spot  specified  in  his 
drawing. 

This  bare  outline  in  condenser  founding  is  but  a  brief 
account  from  actual  practice,  and  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  the  key  to  success  in  pattern  making  lies  in  a  mastery  of 


254 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


FIG.  136. 


the  fundamentals  of  moulding  (at  least  in  so  far  as  it  concerns 
the  making  of  moulds  in  the  foundry). 

Stucco  Pattern  Making. — Stucco  as  a  device  in  pattern 
making  is  generally  admitted  to  have  had  its  origin  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  for  economical  pattern 
making  in  spherical  and  light  sectional  work  it  is  invaluable. 
While  a  book  might  be  written  on  stucco-pattern  making, 

and  illustrated  profusely 
from  the  many  divisions  of 
founding  wherein  its  appli- 
cation would  be  most 

~^ I]    j    Ir^  serviceable,    a    text  -  book 

rl     j     n  such  as  this  can  only  admit 

of  a  very  few  brief  refer- 
ences that  involve  stucco 
practice. 

This  division  of  pattern 
making  is  largely  confined 
to  the  "  hollow  "  and  pipe 
foundry  trades.  Still, 
many  other  departments  of 
pattern  making  in  general 

engineering  and  jobbing  shops  might  introduce  this  method 
or  process  of  pattern  making  to  much  advantage,  as  this 
would  be  specially  serviceable  where  only  "one  off"  in 
cylindrical  section  castings  was  wanted.  Or,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  a  similar  requirement  for  a  cast-iron  pattern  for 
repetition  work  was  needed,  such  as  in  the  "  special  pipe  " 
trade,  where,  as  a  rule,  nothing  but  cast-iron  shell  patterns, 
for  small  and  medium  diameters,  as  seen  at  Fig.  136,  are 
in  use,  a  stucco  pattern  for  its  production  in  point  of 
economy  and  good  practice  becomes  imperative. 

Fig.  136  shows  in  longitudinal  section  a  branch-pipe 
pattern  in  stucco,  which  is  made  in  three  separate  parts 
thus — branch,  body,  and  end  faucet,  separated  according  to 
circumstances.  In  dividing  the  end  faucet  from  the  body, 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  place  of  division  will  serve 
for  again  dividing  or  cutting  the  body  through  equidistant 
from  the  centre  of  the  branch  shown  on  Fig.  136.  By 


PATTERN  MAKING  FROM  A  MOULDER'S  POINT  OF  VIEW    255 

arranging  as  suggested,  we  thereby  secure  this  stucco  pattern 
for  making  "  rights  "  and  "  lefts  "  in  iron  which  constitute 
a  shell  pattern  in  halves  for  standard  work  in  special  pipe 
founding. 

Fig.  137  shows  Fig.  136  in  section  (although  on  a  larger 
scale).  A  is  the  board  for  sweeping  the  "  block  "  on,  and  C 
the  sweep  which  requires  no  explanation,  giving  a  good  rough 
core  block  in  wood,  with  a  minimum  of  clearance  for  stucco, 
as  seen  at  Fig.  137,  and  when  finished,  board  A,  and  core  B 
in  this  figure  may  combine  to  make  a  good  pattern  and 
turning-over  board  for  the  foundry. 

Now,  whether  it  be  tees,  angles,  or  curves  in  this  division 
of  pattern  making,  what  applies  to  the  one  practically  applies 
to  the  other.  Therefore,  if  the  principles,  as  enunciated  here 
be  intelligently  mastered,  their 
application  in  practice  should  become 
easy  in  making  stucco-pipe  patterns 
for  the  foundry.  It  should  be  noted 
that  stucco  sweeps  are  usually  cut  to 
the  core  diameter  first,  and  there- 
after the  same  sweep  is  altered  to 

the  outside  diameter  of  the  casting,  thus  making  the  one 
sweep  do  both  for  core  and  "  thickness  of  metal,"  as  will  be 
seen  by  referring  to  illustrations  in  stucco  pattern  making 
(Figs.  136,  137  and  138). 

Further,  for  jobbing  cast-iron  shell-pipe  patterns  it  is  better 
to  have,  at  least,  all  branches  detached,  and  if  the  hole  on  the 
branch  of  the  body  be  a  good  average  diameter,  the  casting 
of  branches  of  various  diameters  becomes  exceedingly  handy. 
All  the  same,  standard  patterns  should  be  of  standard  com- 
pleteness, if  the  highest  possible  output  of  the  moulder  is 
imperative. 

But  variety  being  the  order  of  the  day  in  special  pipe 
founding,  it  is  amazing  the  smallness  of  cost  this  branch  of 
pattern  making  entails,  with  pipes  that  are  cast  from  "  shell 
patterns,"  when  compared  with  those  that  are  cast  in  the 
usual  way  with  loam  core,  or  dry-sand  core,  made  from  a  core- 
box  and  pattern,  or  otherwise.  In  a  special  pipe  foundry 
hundreds  of  tons  are  cast  that  never  cost  a  cent  in  the 


256  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

pattern  shop  unless  at  an  odd  time  it  may  be  for  a  plain  stick 
as  template,  to  determine  the  length,  etc.,  of  the  casting,  all 
being  done  by  the  moulder  in  the  foundry  by  faking  and 
planting  the  various  pattern  parts  that  go  to  make  what  is 
wanted  according  to  sketch  or  drawing. 

In  special  pipe  foundries  a  large  assortment  of  "  short 
lengths,"  of  the  popular  diameters  are  kept  in  the  pattern 
store,  with  faucets  and  spigot-end  pieces  to  match.  These 
pieces  vary  in  length  from,  say,  6  ins.  to  12  ins.  and  as  a 
matter  of  fact  "odd  specials,"  (and  at  times  bends  also)  are 
moulded  from  this  odd  lot  of  pattern  pieces,  by  the  aid  of 
a  template  determining  both  body  and  branches.  Two 
faucets  or  a  faucet  and  spigot,  as  the  case  may  be,  are 
bedded  endways  to  template,  which  thus  determines  the 
length.  These  parts  secured,  the  short  lengths,  one,  two 
or  more  in  number,  and  to  the  diameter  wanted,  nil  in 
the  space  between  the  end  extremities,  and  with  the  branch, 
or  branches  placed  according  to  sketch  or  template,  the 
pattern  is  thus  so  far  completed. 

At  this  stage  preparation  is  made  for  ramming  the  core, 
and  after  the  core  is  rammed  up  in  green-sand  core  fashion 
the  top  piece  to  every  single  piece  bedded,  which  make  up  the 
bottom  part  of  the  pattern,  receives  its  neighbouring  top  piece. 
Thereafter,  with  the  core  completed,  the  pattern  is  there  and 
then  secured  for  whatever  is  to  follow  in  moulding  an  odd 
special,  in  the  green-sand  special  pipe  department  of  moulding 
from  shell  patterns,  that  are  made  on  the  principle  previously 
stated. 

In  connection  with  this  important  branch  of  foundry 
practice,  we  add  that  whether  it  be  odd  or  standard  specials, 
the  cope  is  next  rammed  up,  and  when  parted  the  core  is  lifted 
out  and  finished  along  with  the  mould.  When  all  is  thus 
completed  the  green -sand  core  is  returned  to  its  "  bearings," 
and  the  cope  being  now  placed  over  the  core,  the  moulding, 
thus  briefly  described,  of  special  pipes  from  shell  cast-iron 
patterns  is  finished.  With  this  method  of  pattern-making 
exception  may  be  taken  by  some  who  are  unaccustomed  to  it, 
and  who  are  of  opinion  that  solid  or  built  wooden  patterns, 
with  their  accompanying  core-boxes  or  loam  boards,  are  in  all 


STUCCO   PATTEEN  MAKING  257 

cases  superior  in  practice.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  stucco  pattern- 
making  is  Scotch  special  pipe  foundry  practice  in  green-sand, 
and  that  being  so,  he  would  be  a  bold  man  to  condemn  what 
has  been  so  long  in  practice  with  a  class  of  founders  who,  as 
a  rule,  are  not  slow  to  adopt  new  methods  of  economical  pro- 
duction. The  whys  and  the  wherefores  of  both  methods, 
viz.,  "  shell,"  or  wooden  patterns  and  core-boxes,  are  certainly 
of  much  interest  for  those  who  have  to  do  with  special  pipe 
founding,  but  for  obvious  reasons  cannot  at  present  be  further 
discussed.  This  slight  digression  from  the  pattern  shop  to  the 
foundry,  in  consideration  of  its  importance,  requires  no  apology, 
and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  stucco  pattern  making, 
as  with  other  methods  in  practice,  a  full-sized  drawing  of  any 
pattern  to  be  made  is,  as  a  rule,  an  absolute  necessity. 

Stucco  Faucet  Pattern. — Fig.  138  shows  the  front  elevation 
(in  section)  of  a  stucco  faucet  pattern,  and  in  some  cases  the 
principle,  as  illustrated  by  this  figure,  is  extended  to  the  full 
length  of  the  pattern  (if  it  be  a  tee-piece  or  such  like),  and,  of 
course,  minus  the  branch  or  branches.  But  the  separating 
of  the  body,  especially  with  the  larger  diameters  of  shell 
patterns,  is  in  ordinary  practice  handiest  by  sweeping  these 
branches  and  faucets  separate  from  their  bodies.  Thus 
separated,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  place  all  the  pattern  pieces 
while  moulding  what  is  to  complete  the  cast-iron  pattern  as  a 
finished  job. 

Again,  at  Fig.  138,  as  will  be  seen,  the  ends  are  cut 
to  the  internal  diameters  of  faucet  and  body,  and  the  sweep 
B  of  this  figure  represents  the  placing  or  sweeping  of  the 
internal  diameters.  Jt  is  well  to  remember  that  this  box  or 
block  A  (Fig.  138)  for  moulding  this  faucet  pattern  in  stucco 
may  be  anything  in  the  bottom,  so  long  as  due  care  is  taken 
that  the  sweep  will  get  working  clear  to  the  outside  diameter, 
when  preparing  it  to  mould  the  stucco  pattern,  as  illustrated 
in  section  Fig.  138. 

Faucets  in  stucco  pattern  making  may  also  be  swept  by 
spindle  and  board  in  the  vertical  position  like  any  other  core 
thus  treated.  Thereafter  in  due  time  the  pattern  is  separated 
from  its  block  and  sawn  in  halves  suitable  for  moulding. 

Bell-Mouth  Stucco  Pattern. — Fig.  139  represents  this  pattern 

F.P.  s 


258 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 


without  dimensions  of  any  kind,  these  being  of  no  practical 
purpose  for  showing  the  principle  for  making  this  pattern  in 
stucco.  It  will  be  observed  that  it  is  not  practicable  to  sweep 
the  flange,  as  shown  at  D,  Fig.  139,  in  stucco,  and  it  must  of 
necessity  be  made  of  wood  and  fitted  on  to  the  stucco  pattern  ns 
made  from  the  sweep  E  (Fig.  139),  which  is  wrought  from 
a  small  pin  C  attached  thereto,  thus  securing  the  sweep  for  its 
work,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  139.  The  board  A  being  secured 
for  this  job,  the  core  or  block  B  of  this  figure  is  afterwards 
swept  in  stucco,  which  in  turn  is  allowed  to  stiffen,  and  after 
being  coated  with  oil  (which  as  previously  stated  is  for  part- 
ing purposes)  the  thickness  in  stucco,  as  shown  between  the 
space  of  block  B  and  sweep  E,  is  next  put  on,  thereby  complet- 
ing the  formation  of  the 
body  of  this  bell-mouth 
pattern,  as  illustrated  by 
Fig.  139.  With  this 
pattern  painted  and  var- 
nished, and  the  flange 
Z>,  which  is  in  wood, 
made,  we  have  here  a 
complete  pattern  ready 
for  the  foundry. 
To  a  pattern-maker  of  experience  the  economy  exhibited  in 
this  process  of  pattern  making,  when  compared  with  wooden 
patterns  of  a  similar  type,  is  too  apparent  to  admit  of  dissen- 
sion ;  indeed,  stucco  practice,  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  139,  is 
capable  of  producing  as  much  good  work  in  hours  as  that  of 
days  on  similar  work  when  made  in  wood,  and  the  more 
conical  in  section  any  design  may  appear,  the  cheaper  the 
relative  cost  of  production  in  stucco  pattern  making  becomes. 
However,  stucco  has  its  limitations  in  the  pattern  shop  also, 
therefore  one  would  do  well  to  discriminate  betiveen  it  and  loam 
for  similar  purposes,  especially  where  castings  or  patterns  are 
wanted  at  the  cheapest  rate  possible. 

Mixing  Str.cco. — The  trough  or  box  used  for  this  purpose 
should  have  plenty  of  taper,  so  that  no  impediment  may 
be  experienced  in  removing  the  hard  stucco.  Before  pro- 
ceeding to  mix  stucco,  one's  hands  should  be  well  coated  with 


FIG.  i.sn. 


STUCCO   PATTEKN  MAKING  259 

oil,  and  the  water  with  which  it  is  mixed  should  contain  a 
little  Irish  lime,  which  will  make  the  stucco  more  constant 
while  working  it;  and  the  least  possible  time  occupied 
in  all  operations  is  always  productive  of  the  best  possible 
results. 

Loam ;  Special  Pipe  Pattern  Making. — In  pattern  making 
for  pipes  we  may  take  it  that  no  class  of  work  gives  such 
scope  for  variety  of  methods  in  making  patterns  as  does 
that  of  jobbing  pipe  moulding,  light  and  heavy.  This  is 
not  confined  to  any  particular  branch  of  moulding,  green- 
sand,  dry-sand  and  loam  being  alike  in  this  respect.  In 
green-sand  moulding  solid,  skeleton,  shell,  and  other  kinds 


FIG.  140. 

of  pattern,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate,  are  used, 
and  dry-sand  moulding  is  accommodated  on  similar  lines,  with 
the  exception  of  the  "  shell "  pattern  which  is  seldom  used 
above  12  ins.  diameter  and  in  some  foundries  confined  to  the 
green-sand  department  exclusively. 

But  for  repeat  work,  save  a  few  possible  exceptions,  nothing 
can  surpass  for  speed  and  accuracy  a  good  pattern  and 
core-box,  with  a  complete  and  suitable  plant,  the  exceptions 
bulking  largely  amongst  the  larger  diameters  of  "  specials  " 
in  a  pipe  factory  where  variety  is  predominant  and  repeat 
work  is  practically  unknown. 

The  best  pipe  factories,  as  a  rule,  do  not  recognise  dry-sand 
moulding  for  "  specials  "  ;  thus  all  above  12  ins.  diameter  as  a 
rule  are  moulded  in  loam,  quite  the  opposite  of  jobbing  foundry 
practice,  as  narrated  at  p.  89  on  "  Special  Pipes  and  Patterns." 

The  foregoing  process,  where  only  one,  or,  say,  only  half  a 

s  2 


260 


FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDBY  PBACTICE 


dozen  are  wanted,  is  the  most  economical  for  large  diameters, 
and  its  superiority  in  producing  first-class  castings  has  no 
equal,  with  usual  care  in  the  foundry. 

The  process  of  moulding  specials  in  loam  is  of  a  two-fold 
character  :  first,  by  cross  and  spindle  in  the  vertical  position ; 
and  second,  by  arranging  the  spindle  to  work,  practically,  the 
same  board  horizontally,  and  according  to  ordinary  loam 
practice. 

All  the  cost,  of  pattern  making  for  this  method  of  moulding 
"  special  pipe  castings  "  in  loam  (in  pipe  factories)  is  confined 
to  a  few  sweeps,  as  will  be  seen  further  on.  And  instead 
of  patterns,  and  core-boxes,  or  other  adjuncts  for  the  same 
purpose,  the  vertical  and  horizontal  methods  of  moulding  are 
embodied  in  the  section  on  "  Loam  Moulding "  in  the 


FIG.  Hi. 


FIG.  142. 


second  division  of  this  work.  For  the  present,  then, 
we  pass  on  to  describe  the  most  that  can  be  said  from  a 
practical  moulder's  point  of  view  in  connection  with  loam 
moulding  of  special  pipe  castings. 

Fig.  140  is  a  plain  frame  of  an  18-in.  pipe  which  is  cast  about 
J  in.  thick,  and  is  the  base  of  all  operations  for  sweeping  this 
or  similar  moulds,  in  loam.  Fig.  141  is  the  body  sweep,  and 
Fig.  142  shows  the  faucet,  and  this  sweep  is  made  to  revolve 
as  seen  at  Fig.  143,  the  principle  of  which  is  carried  out  at 
both  ends  of  the  mould  to  form  spigot  and  faucet. 

The  bottom  of  the  mould  being  completed,  a  sweep  (Fig.  144) 
is  made  to  the  diameter  of  core,  viz.,  18  ins.,  and  is  used  for 
sweeping  on  the  thickness  of  metal,  with  either  sand  or  loam 
on  the  bottom  of  mould  ;  this,  being  completed  and  dried,  forms 
a  substitute  for  a  core-box.  The  last  sweep  handled  at  the 
making  of  the  core  is  shown  in  Fig.  145,  and  is  worked  from 
one  of  the  outsidesof  the  frame  which  is  illustrated  at  Fig.  146 
with  sectional  elevation  complete,  right  from  the  bottom  of 


STUCCO   PATTERN  MAKING 


261 


the  moulding-box  A  to  the  top  of  core-sweep  F.  Briefly  put, 
Fig.  146  reads  thus  : — A  is  the  box  or  casing,  B  bricks  or  sand, 
C  thickness  of  metal,  formed  by  sand  or  loam  as  stated  ; 
D  is  the  core  and  core  iron,  F  the  top  sweep  for  finishing  off 
the  core.  The  insignificance  of  pattern  shop  requirements  for 
moulding  specials  in  loam  are  herein  manifest  to  a  degree, 
and  the  absence  of  the  top  cope,  as  shown  in  Fig.  146 
obviously  requires  no  explanation  since  pattern  making  is  the 
subject  under  consideration  ;  the  details  as  illustrated,  from  a 
moulder's  point  of  view,  need  not  be  taken  seriously. 

Spur  or  Tooth- wheel  Patterns. — More  than  twenty-five  years 
ago  many  predicted  that  wheel  patterns  for  this  class  of 
work  would  be  likely  to  become  a  thing  of  the  past,  being 
replaced  by  the  machine-moulded  wheel,  but  prophecy  has 


FIG.  144. 


FIG.  145. 


FIG.  146. 


been  stultified  in  this,  as  in  many  other  things  in  foundry 
practice,  because  the  wooden  pattern  with  its  teeth  in  finished 
completeness  is  still  not  without  its  many  admirers.  How- 
ever, as  has  been  pointed  out  elsewhere,  both  have  their 
place  from  an  engineering  point  of  view,  as  well  as  in  the 
foundry ;  consequently,  it  is  one  of  those  questions  of 
engineering  economics  which  is  left  for  managers  alone  to 
decide.  Hence,  the  merits  of  either  for  speed,  accuracy, 
and  economy  are  not  disputed,  further  than  to  say  that  with 
many  diameters  and  pitches,  the  machine-moulded  tooth 
wheel  is  not  the  most  economically  produced  casting  of  its 
kind  in  the  market,  and  where  a  pattern  can  be  had  in  time  of 
extreme  need,  as,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  a  "  breakdown," 
the  pattern-moulded  wheel  may  be  got  in  one-fourth  of  the 
time  required  to  cast  the  same  wheel  by  machine  moulding 
and  core-boxes.  Moreover,  in  the  case  of  a  wheel  from 
4  tons  to  6  tons,  and,  say,  from  3  ins.  to  4  ins.  pitch, 


262  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 

experience  has  proved  that  a  wheel  pattern  can  be  made, 
and  all  necessary  plant  for  moulding  it,  and  the  casting 
produced  also,  at  a  cost  within  the  buying  price  of  a  machine- 
moulded  spur-wheel  casting. 

Reducing  or  increasing  Breadth  or  Depth  of  Spur-Wheel 
Castings. — This  is  a  practice  that  ought  to  be  absolutely 
confined  to  the  foundry.  Many  firms  destroy  to  a  certain 
extent  their  catalogued  patterns  by  cutting  or  reducing  the 
breadth  of  the  teeth  for  ordinary  or  emergency  needs. 
This  is  a  waste  that  need  not  be,  because  wheels  may  be 
broadened,  or  made  deeper  than  any  given  pattern  by  the 
moulder  at  comparatively  little  cost,  while  the  pattern  remains 
intact,  thus  saving  to  a  considerable  extent  time  and  money 
in  casting  these  wheels,  under  emergency  or  ordinary 
circumstances. 

With  this  class  of  wheel  castings,  of  course,  some  are  shrouded, 
capped,  or  flanged,  but  these  terms  being  synonymous,  we  shall 
for  convenience  classify  these  castings  as  capped  and  plain 
wheels,  and  the  latter,  being  those  most  easily  made  in 
the  foundry,  we  shall  illustrate  and  deal  with  these  first. 
But,  whether  capped  or  plain — and  no  matter  whether  it  be  a 
case  of  reducing  or  extending  depth  in  the  mould,  which  of 
course  means  additional  breadth  to  the  casting — all  must 
be  done  to  bring  out  the  boss  at  an  equal  "  divide,"  top  and 
bottom,  in  the  mould,  and  its  original  proportioned  breadth  of 
boss  in  the  casting.  Further,  in  all  that  follows  on  the 
manipulating  of  a  pattern  on  the  lines  suggested,  we  shall 
keep  exclusively  to  a  6-ft.  diameter  wheel,  and,  say, 
3  ins.  pitch,  and  12  ins.  deep  or  broad,  as  illustrated  by 
Fig.  147,  so  as  to  simplify  the  description  of  this  method 
of  moulding  wheel  castings,  as  practised  by  the  writer  for 
many  years.  If  proof  were  required  to  show  how  pattern  shop 
and  foundry  can  work  together  for  the  greatest  good  of 
any  firm,  we  certainly  have  it  in  "  reducing  or  increasing 
breadth  or  depth"  of  wheels  from  standard  patterns.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  a  spur  wheel  6  ins.  deep  can  be  moulded  and 
cast  from  a  pattern  12  ins.  deep,  or  rice  versa,  by  following  the 
instructions  accompanying  Fig.  147,  or  any  other  alteration  of 
breadth  within  reasonable  limits. 


STUCCO    PATTERN  MAKING  263 

And,  in  order  to  comprehend  or  fully  understand  the 
modus  operandi  of  increasing  or  decreasing  breadth  of 
spur  wheels  in  the  sand  during  the  operation  of  moulding  the 
main  point  is  to  study  closely  the  Figs.  147,  149,  150 
and  151,  illustrating  this  practice  which,  with  all  things  con- 
sidered, does  not  create  much  additional  cost,  unless  when 
"decreasing"  takes  place;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  when 
"  increasing  "  takes  pla^e,  there  is  usually  a  gain  in  the  extra 
weight  fairly  commensurate  with  all  the  trouble  involved  by 
this  process.  It  will  be  an  advantage  to  observe  that  these 
figures  are  in  double  sectional  elevation,  first  showing  on 
the  right  hand  the  position  of  the  job  before  parting,  and 


FIG.  147. 

second,  its  finished  condition  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the 
figures  referred  to,  with  the  alterations  wanted. 

Reducing  Non-capped  Wheels. — At  Fig.  147,  A  is  the  pattern 
which  is  supposed  to  be  in  its  original  form  12  ins.  deep  ;  B  is 
the  ring  which  lifts  out  the  teeth  for  the  purpose  of  cutting 
and  filling  up  the  3  ins.  remaining  on  the  bottom  of  the  mould 
to  the  parting  line,  and  finishing  it  off  in  the  usual  way  with 
the  ring  B  separated  from  its  bearings. 

The  foregoing  in  some  instances  will  doubtless  suffice  to 
give  practical  men,  hitherto  unacquainted  with  this  sort  of 
trick  in  wheel  moulding,  as  much  information  as  should  enable 
them  to  do  it  for  themselves.  Still,  with  others  it  might  be 
pre-supposing  too  much  if  no  more  information  were  given. 
Therefore,  the  process  may  be  thus  briefly  described : — Bed 
down  the  pattern  in  the  usual  way,  and  after  it  has  besn 
rammed  and  secured,  the  bottom  parting  is  then  made, 
which  determines  the  cutting  line  of  the  bottom  ends  of 


264  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

the  teeth,  as  seen  at  D  (Fig.  147).  The  ring  B  is  at  this 
point  bedded  in,  thereafter  the  parting  is  made  to  sweep 
(Fig.  148);  this  sweep  is  cut  on  one  side  to  9  ins.  for  the 
bottom  parting,  and  3  ins.  to  suit  the  top  one.  Great  care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  formation  of  these  partings,  because 
whatever  these  are  swept  to,  the  same  determines  the  breadth 
or  depth  of  the  casting.  A  study  of  the  partings,  and  a 
sketch  also  of  whatever  figure  be  under  consideration,  will 
enable  those  interested  to  compare  this  sketch  with  the 
following  descriptions  of  any  of  the  wheels  represented  by 
Figs.  147,  149,  150  and  151.  The  procedure  thus  mastered, 
the  propositions  as  laid  down  become  comparatively  simple 
to  practical  men.  Lastly,  when  finishing  top  and  bottom 
sides  of  the  boss  (Fig.  147),  get  a  print  the  diameter  of 


FIG.  148. 

core  wanted,  and  have  it  to  project  from  the  faces  of  the 
boss  to  the  amount  it  is  to  be  cut  top  and  bottom.  Thus  we 
see  the  print  referred  to  serves  a  two-fold  purpose — first, 
to  give  the  diameter  of  core ;  and  second,  its  thickness  becomes 
the  guide  determining  depth  of  boss  as  seen  on  left-hand  side 
elevation  of  Fig.  147. 

Increasing  Breadth  of  Non-capped  Wheels. — Without  going 
into  details  concerning  the  process  of  increasing  the  breadth 
of  spur  wheels  of  this  description,  it  will  at  once  be  seen  that 
Fig.  149  is  an  inversion  of  Fig.  147,  as  this  job  is  simply 
begun  with  a  pattern  6  ins.  deep,  and  finished  off  with  a  mould 
12  ins.  deep  as  illustrated  and  explained.  In  further  reference 
to  Fig.  149, -we  at  once  see  that  the  commencement  of  moulding 
is  practically  the  same  as  Fig.  147,  and  the  first  extension  of 
3  ins.  is  illustrated  and  written  in  plain  English,  "  mould." 

It  ought  to  be  mentioned  that  the  space  referred  to  is 
formed  after  the  pattern  is  completely  rammed  up  to  the  top 


STUCCO  PATTERN  MAKINa  265 

of  the  teeth,  thoroughly  tightened,  and  drawn  with  great  care 
to  the  point  desired.  But,  whether  a  6  ins.  deep  pattern 
should  be  drawn  3  ins.  at  once,  instead  of  by  two  separate 
draws,  is  a  matter  of  opinion.  However,  I  should  say  that 
by  adopting  the  latter  method  results  will  undoubtedly  be 
more  satisfactory. 

On  the  pattern  being  drawn  to  the  exact  spot,  it  is  thereafter 
made  a  fixture  in  its  mould  by  tucking  and  ramming  carefully 
all  round  the  webs  of  the  arms,  thus  securing  it  for  finishing 
off  the  additional  ramming  of  the  teeth  with  safety,  thus 
giving  the  full  depth  of  the  teeth  or  casting  when  moulded, 
as  illustrated  at  Fig.  149. 

So  far,  we  see,  this  last  movement  means  a  blank  of  3  ins. 


:''  v  ---  -"        :' 

' 


Mould 


FIG.  149. 

in  the  teeth  of  the  pattern,  until  the  top  part  is  rammed  up 
and  the  box  parted.  On  this  being  done,  the  moulder  must 
now  remove  the  blank  sand  from  off  the  top  of  the  teeth  (see 
Fig.  149).  This  done,  he  next  draws  his  pattern  with  usual 
care  to  the  parting  line,  and  when  here,  and  fixed  exactly  to 
the  depth  wanted,  the  top  or  last  extensions  of  the  teeth  are 
rammed  according  to  the  practice  of  securing  teeth,  and 
swabbed  with  water,  etc.  ;  the  pattern  is  then  in  turn 
completely  taken  from  the  sand,  thereby  completing  the 
extension  of  moulding  a  non-capped  spur-wheel  casting  12  ins. 
deep  from  a  pattern  only  6  ins.  deep. 

The  new  pattern  pieces  for  this  method  of  increasing  breadth 
are  made  up  of  additional  parts  for  the  arms,  as  illustrated  at 
Fig.  149,  and  a  similar  extension  to  the  depth  of  boss,  shown 
thus,  X,  on  Fig.  149,  embraces  all  that  is  necessary  from  the 


266 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


pattern-shop  for  increasing  the  depth  of  a  non-capped  spin- 
wheel.  Truly  an  economy  in  this  division  of  foundry 
practice,  and  most  commendable  where  there  is  a  pattern 
to  work  from. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the  ring  B  in  Figs.  147 
and  149  is  used  entirely  for  the  convenience  of  finishing  off 
in  superior  fashion  what  might  otherwise  be  inferior  teeth 
in  these  castings.  The  meaning  of  this  will,  doubtless,  be 
obvious  without  further  explanation. 

Reducing  a  Capped  Spur  Wheel. — A  glance  at  Fig.  150 
shows,  on  the  right-hand  side,  in  double  sectional  elevation 
the  change  that  is  made  in  a  pattern  12  ins.  broad,  rammed 
up  in  the  floor,  while  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  same  figure 


I  *  •      "  *  {'•'• 

FIG.  150. 

is  seen  the  mould  6  ins.  deep,  which  has  been  transformed 
by  the  moulder  to  the  reduced  condition.  Clearly  this  change 
is  most  pronounced,  and  the  process  is  altogether  different 
from  the  one  described  in  Fig.  147. 

Nevertheless,  the  modus  operandi  of  moulding  this  job  is 
practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  previous  two  examples  given 
in  moulding  "  non-capped  spur  wheels,"  that  are  either  reduced 
or  increased  in  breadth.  With  this  explanation  of  moulding 
procedure  we  confine  our  remarks  more  especially  to  the 
pattern  and  its  adjuncts. 

Assuming  the  core  print  to  be  correct  on  any  given  pattern 
chosen  for  this  purpose,  and  that  all  other  dimensions  (of 
course,  except  breadth  of  teeth)  are  to  specification,  it  must 
now  be  noted  that  nothing  is  taken  away,  and  whatever  alter- 
ations are  required  for  this  job  become  purely  a  question  of 


STUCCO   PATTERN  MAKING  267 

how  much  a-side  (new  wood)  is  to  be  put  on  the  pattern  of 
any  capped  wheel,  to  he  altered  for  reducing  the  casting,  say, 
from  12  ins.  to  6  ins.  Further,  whether  it  is  a  reduction  from 
12  ins.  to  6  ins.,  or  any  other  breadths  or  depths  that  may  be 
considered,  it  is,  first  of  all,  an  operation  in  the  pattern  shop 
of  dividing  the  difference  by  cleading  both  sides  of  the  arms  of 
the  pattern  in  the  aggregate  equally  with  wood  to  what  is 
wanted,  when  considering  the  reducing  of  capped  spur-wheel 
castings.  Hence  in  the  reducing  of  12  ins.  to  6  ins.  there 
must  be  3-in.  pieces  of  wood  (BB,  Fig.  150)  nailed  on  the  flat 
faces  of  the  arms ;  also,  any  additional  wood  that  may  be 
required  to  retain  strength  and  symmetry,  and  strength  of 
"  feather  "  on  the  arms  of  the  casting. 

A  study  then  of  Fig.  150  becomes  imperative — A  is  the 
original  "flat"  of  the  arm  of  the  pattern,  BB  are  the  3-in. 
temporary  or  extension  pieces  that  are  used  for  the  reducing 
movement  with  this  pattern,  C  is  the  ring  as  previously 
referred  to,  and  D  is  the  top  part. 

The  pattern,  as  illustrated  with  its  cope  rammed  up,  is 
ready  for  parting,  and  when  the  cope  is  removed  the  moulder 
immediately  sets  about  to  reduce  by  cutting  and  scraping  with 
the  sweeps,  not  illustrated,  but  made  in  a  similar  fashion  to 
Fig.  148.  The  6  ins.  the  moulder  has  previously  arranged 
for  scraping  out  must  be  done  to  size  with  a  short  sweep, 
suitable  for  working  between  the  respective  arms  of  the  wheel 
pattern;  and,  with  the  scraping  of  both  outside  and  inside 
partings,  by  these  6-in.  checked  sweeps,  and  thereafter  the 
finishing,  completes  the  production  of  a  mould  for  a  6-in. 
capped  spur-wheel  casting  from  a  pattern  12  ins.  broad. 

From  a  moulder's  point  of  view  it  may  be  permissible  to 
add  that  the  eyes  of  the  ring  C  (Fig.  150)  must  be  kept  6  ins. 
short  (i.e.,  when  bedded  in),  otherwise,  if  placed  to  correspond 
with  the  unaltered  depth  of  the  pattern  (12  ins.)  much  trouble 
would  arise  when  returning  the  cope  to  its  position  as  seen  on 
left-hand  side  of  the  figure  in  question. 

Increasing  Breadth  of  Capped  Spur  Wheels. — Fig.  151,  in 
a  sense,  is  a  repeat  of  Fig.  147,  at  least,  in  so  far  as  the 
movements  of  drawing  the  pattern  for  extension  are  concerned. 
The  amount  of  pattern  making  is  provided  for  by  having 


268 


FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 


sufficient  clogs  or  blocks  of  wood  for  the  entire  increase 
on  the  top  half  of  the  pattern.  Therefore,  assuming  it 
to  be  an  increase  of  6  ins.,  the  blocks  must  be  3  ins.  deep, 
firmly  fixed  to  the  circle  or  rirn  of  the  wheel,  and  placed 
to  suit  the  pinholes  of  the  cap  segments  that  encircle  the 
pattern.  Herein  is  explained  the  whole  of  the  pattern  making 
for  increasing  depth  of  mould  on  the  lines  suggested  ;  and, 
with  the  caps  thus  arranged,  there  is  but  little  else  to  add 
except  to  say  that  the  method  of  ramming  and  drawing 
the  pattern  is  that  laid  down  for  Fig.  147.  Also  the  move- 
ments of  "faking"  and  manipulating  for  a  finish  being  all 
the  same,  we  only  emphasise  the  importance  of  knowing  in 


•  •••:>.;.•$/  ^  ••••• 
FIG.  151. 

detail  all  connected  with  these  figures  on  "  special  spur-wheel 
moulding,"  either  with  or  without  caps,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Moreover,  we  may  take  it  that  just  in  proportion  as  we  master 
the  various  movements,  which  have  been  illustrated,  of  this 
most  important  and  economical  branch  of  foundry  practice, 
so  will  our  successes  in  handling  this  work — which  is  quite 
simple  in  practice — be  proportionately  secured.  See  page  87 
for  further  information  on  pattern  making. 

FOUNDRY   OVENS  AND   THEIR  CONSTRUCTION 

Probably  there  is  no  question  in  founding  on  which  opinion 
is  more  divided  than  that  of  foundry  ovens,  and  in  point  of 
fact  we  find  that  ovens  are  as  varied  in  their  construction  as 
the  buildings  that  bear  the  name  of  foundry.  Hence  it 
frequently  happens  that  in  the  most  primitive  types  of 


FOUNDEY  OVENS  AND  THEIR  CONSTEUCTION        269 

foundries  we  find  the  improvised  fire,  with  its  plate  resting 
on  bricks  over  the  top  of  the  flame,  drying  small  bench 
cores  with  an  evident  waste  of  fuel  certainly  not  common  to 
modern  up-to-date  core  ovens,  which  may  either  be  fired  with 
gaseous  or  solid  fuel.  However  varied  the  larger  ovens  may  be 
in  their  construction,  the  greatest  difference  lies  in  the  method 
of  firing  adopted,  i.e.,  whether  solid  or  gaseous  fuel  is  used. 
Ovens  using  solid  fuels  ("fuel  ovens")  have  solid  walls 
and  floors,  but  in  the  case  of  gas  ovens  the  walls  and 
floors  are  as  a  rule  more  or  less  hollowed,  with  flues  for 
combustion. 

Construction. — In  the  first  place  we  notice  that  all  ovens 
must  have  a  chimney  to  carry  off  the  steam  and  smoke  and 
to  give  the  necessary  draught  for  the  combustion  of  the  fuel, 
whether  solid  or  gaseous.  It  is  not  proposed  to  discuss  at 
any  length  the  question  as  to  which  are  the  more  economical, 
"  gas"  or  "fuel"  ovens,  since  it  depends  largely  on  the  indi- 
vidual requirements  and  conditions  in  each  foundry.  In  a 
general  way  it  may  be  safe  to  say  that,  in  jobbing  foundry 
practice  at  least,  nothing  can  surpass  the  old-fashioned  type 
of  oven  with  its  solid  walls  and  floor,  and  with  the  vent  or 
outlet  flue  in  the  floor  or  the  extreme  bottom  of  either 
side  wall. 

There  are  some  whose  idea  of  an  oven  furnace  or  fire  is 
simply  to  form  a  box-like  structure  in  a  corner  of  the  oven 
which  is  most  convenient  for  firing ;  and  with  the  necessary 
fire-bars  resting  on  a  piece  of  cast  iron,  front  hearth-plate  and 
back  hearth-plate,  and  perhaps  with  an  improvised  door  only, 
their  furnace  is  complete.  Fireplaces  of  this  type  cause  poor 
combustion  and  inferior  distribution  of  heat,  which  result  in 
additional  cost  of  fuel  and  extra  cost  of  time  for  attendance. 
It  is  important,  then,  in  the  first  place  to  provide  sufficient 
draught  for  the  complete  combustion  of  the  fuel ;  and  a  fire- 
place, such  as  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  152,  will,  when  connected 
with  a  suitable  chimney,  be  found  to  answer  admirably  for 
the  heating  of  foundry  ovens.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a 
separate  chimney  for  each  oven,  as  one  chimney  may  be  made 
to  provide  sufficient  draught  for  the  successful  working  of 
three  or  four  ovens,  while  equally  good  results  maybe  obtained 


270 


FACTS   ON   GENERAL   FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 


when  the  chimney  is  placed  at  some  considerable  distance 
from  the  ovens.  The  hearth  of  all  foundry  ovens  should  be 
placed  on  or  about  the  level  of  the  stove  floor. 

Materials. — Of  course  ovens  are,  or  should  be,  built  of  fire- 
bricks or  similar  refractory  material,  and  the  more  sub- 
stantial the  walls  are  made  the  more  economical  will  be  the 
drying  produced  from  them.  But  what  is  more  to  the  point 
as  regards  economy  than  anything  else  is  the  continuous  use 
to  which  an  oven  should  be  put  in  the  drying  of  moulds  and 
cores.  Ovens  that  are  allowed  to  remain  idle  for  such  a 

length  of  time  as 
will  enable  all  pre- 
vious heat  to  be 
exhausted,  and, 
what  is  worse 
still,  to  draw  damp 
from  its  bottom 
surroundings, 


or 

retard  the  process 
of  drying,  thereby 
intensifying  the 
additional  cost 
which  follows  the 
drying  of  the  con- 
tents of  an  oven 
that  is  only  inter- 
mittently in  use. 
A  good  thick  wall  all  round  and  a  roof  of  the  same  capacity 
for  retaining  heat  are  points  of  economy  in  oven  construction 
as  essential  for  the  saving  of  fuel,  with  its  consequent  saving 
in  time  and  money,  as  the  steam  jacket  that  surrounds  the 
steam  cylinder  or  the  "  composition  "  covering  with  which 
the  steam  boiler  and  pipes  are  covered.  If  the  ovens  are 
to  have  the  longest  life  possible,  then  there  must  be  a  thorough 
binding  of  their  walls,  with  vertical  stanchions  and  horizontal 
bolts  right  across  binding  these  stanchions  at  suitable 
distances  apart. 

A  good  type  of  bearers  for  foundry  oven  roofs  is  found  in 
the  T  section,  cast  according  to  the  work  they  have  to  perform. 


L 


FIG.  152. 


FOUNDEY  OVENS  AND   THEIE  OONSTEUCTION        271 

These  girders,  as  shown  at  Fig.  153,  are  very  suitable  for 
carrying  the  roof,  whether  it  be  of  cast-iron  plates,  or  built  of 
arch  brick,  as  illustrated.  It  not  infrequently  happens  that 
cast-iron  plates  are  applied  as  substitutes  for  roofing  and 
last  for  many  years  when  exposed  to  heat  which  is  not  above 
normal  temperature  for  drying  loam  cores.  But  even  such 
plates,  although  perhaps  convenient  material  for  a  foundry, 
may  not  always  be  the  cheapest,  and  where  heat  of  drying  is 
abnormal,  a  brick  arch,  as  illustrated,  and  well  padded,  is  un- 
doubtedly the  only  way  of  roofing  a  foundry  oven  satisfactorily. 
Situation. — Ovens  are  usually  placed  at  the  ends  of  jobbing 
foundries,  an  arrangement  which  goes  a  great  way  in  keeping 
the  shop  clear  of  undue  heat,  and  is  an  advantage  which  adds 
considerably  to  the  comfort  of  the  men  in  the  foundry  during 
the  excessive  heat  experienced  in  most  foundries  throughout 


FIG.  153. 

the  summer  months  of  the  year.  Besides  this  the  traffic 
common  to  ovens  is  more  conveniently  out  of  the  way  at  the 
ends  of  foundries  than  when  the  ovens  are  placed  along  its 
sides.  Therefore  end-ways  for  ovens  in  the  foundry  should  be 
observed  wherever  possible. 

One  of  the  principal  points  to  be  observed  in  selecting  a  site 
is  dry  ground  to  build  upon,  especially  with  those  ovens  that 
are  built  outside  the  foundry,  and  if  the  bottom  of  the  furnace 
pit  or  fire-hole  be  underneath  the  level  of  the  ground  on  which 
the  oven  is  built,  nothing  short  of  good  drainage  all  round 
will  suffice  to  keep  the  oven  dry  throughout  all  conditions  of 
weather.  Where  this  has  been  neglected,  or  has  become 
defective  through  the  process  of  time,  damp  floors  result 
(sometimes  actual  water  is  to  be  seen),  thus  creating  a  waste 
of  fuel  too  apparent  for  further  comment. 

But  where  firing  is  light  and  no  intense  heat  from  the  oven 
is  experienced  during  the  day,  no  objection  need  be  raised 


272  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

about  situation,  even  should  such  be  practically  in  the  middle 
of  the  shop,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  our  "  bank-pipe " 
foundries.  A  core  oven  in  the  centre  of  four  "banks" 
employing  green-sand  pipe  moulders,  four  benches  for 
making  the  cores,  possibly  of  various  sizes,  and  two  carriages 
for  the  convenience  of  drying  the  cores  with  all  the  equipment 
necessary,  is  a  situation  satisfactory  to  all  concerned.  All 
firing  required  for  these  cores  being  in  the  night  time,  no 
inconvenience  from  heat,  as  previously  referred  to,  is 
possible  at  least  to  any  great  extent. 

Firing  the  Or  en. — It  is  a  peculiarity  of  good  drying  that 
moulds  and  cores  as  -a  rule  require  to  be  treated  separately ; 
and  for  that  reason  cores,  especially  if  they  be  of  straw 
and  loam  composition,  are  exclusively  dried  in  what  is 
known  as  the  core  oven.  Mould  drying  is  constant,  but  core 
drying  on  the  lines  suggested  is  of  necessity  intermittent,  and 
the  firing  suitable  for  the  latter  would  be  too  slow  a  process  for 
the  former,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  firing  necessary  for 
moulds  in  general  would  spell  destruction  for  cores  of  the 
class  referred  to.  Likewise  constant  heat  in  a  core-oven  is 
impossible,  because  of  the  frequent  opening  and  shutting  of 
the  doors  of  a  core-oven  working  under  normal  conditions. 
Such  frequent  opening  of  doors  would  in  the  case  of  a  mould- 
drying  stove  retard  drying,  and  such  a  loss  of  heat  as  this 
entails,  altogether  apart  from  time,  would  make  the  cost  of 
drying  moulds  in  the  coreo-ven  unnecessarily  expensive. 
Hence  the  necessity  for  separate  stoves  where  work  as 
indicated  can  be  found  for  them.  Oven-firing  in  the  foundry 
is  always  best  and -most  economically  performed  when  the 
moulds  occupy  all  available  space  for  drying  and  when  the 
ovens  are  kept  practically  constantly  under  fire. 

Gas-Drying  Ovens. — In  gas-producer  ovens  there  are  at 
least  two  systems,  namely,  those  which  are  installed  with 
gas  producer  and  steam  boiler  separate,  and  others  of  a 
much  smaller  and  less  pretentious  type,  placed  alongside  of 
the  ovens,  generating  gas  and  the  necessary  steam  for  com- 
bustion. The  former  of  these  systems  in  gas  oven  construc- 
tion and  drying  has  long  been  tested,  and  to  many  it  seems 
the  only  way  of  drying  economically  ;  the  latter  is  of  a  much 


FOUNDRY   OVENS  AND   THEIR   CONSTRUCTION        27,'i 

more  recent  date,  but  through  the  process  of  time  may 
yet  form  a  rival  in  gas  drying  on  a  smaller  scale  to  the 
old-estahlished  installation  of  gas  drying  referred  to. 

The  arrangement  of  flues  in  gas  oven  construction  is  part 
of  the  secret,  if  it  may  be  put  so,  belonging  to  the  system, 
and  wherever  it  is  adopted  the  flues  must  be  designed  to  meet 
the  peculiar  needs  of  the  branch  of  founding  practiced.  Conse- 
quently the  flue  arrangement  of  a  vertical  pipe  gas-drying  oven 
would  not  work  economically  if  adopted  to  dry  the  work  common 
to  jobbing  foundries.  A  good  average  pipe  foundry  oven  for 
vertical  drying  must  measure  from  rails  to  roof  from  12  ft. 
to  17  ft.,  and  sideways  anywhere  between  8  ft.  and  5  ft.  and, 
say,  40  ft.  long,  while  that  of  a  jobbing  foundry  may  approxi- 
mate 30  ft.  long  by  12  ft.  by  10  ft.  high  or  otherwise, 
according  to  work  done.  From  the  foregoing  we  see  the 
need  of  thinking  out  the  matter  with  those  who  make 
oven  construction  and  drying  their  specialty.  However,  it 
might  be  pointed  out  in  passing  that  the  ratio  between  gas 
oven  capacity  and  their  gas  producers,  roughly  put,  works  out 
approximately  at  as  1  is  to  30,  and  between  steam  boiler 
capacity  of  the  Cornish  type  for  such  work  and  the  producers 
as  1  is  to  4. 

Having  referred  in  brief  to  the  difference  of  construction 
and  economy  in  drjTing  existent  between  gas  and  coal 
ovens  in  the  foundry,  one  would  do  well  to  examine 
minutely  the  claims  of  each.  With  gas  pre-eminence  is 
only  possible  where  large  quantities  for  oven  drying  are 
imperative,  and  systematically  consumed  every  day.  But 
before  adopting  this  process  challenge  and  scrutinise  the 
method  proposed,  and  most  especially  as  it  relates  to  first 
cost  and  upkeep. 

The  calculations  given  above  refer  to  an  installation  of 
twelve  stoves,  with  an  average  capacity  of  32  ft.  by  10  ft. 
by  12  ft.,  and  of  course  these  must  be  subject  to  modification 
or  alteration  proportionately  (and  especially  in  steaming 
capacity)  when  a  smaller  installation  is  considered. 

Ovens  for  drying  purposes  in  foundries  are  absolutely  without 
limitation  in  design  and  construction,  and  a  small  gas  oven 
fired  with  a  supply  of  corporation  gas,  burning  from  a  simple 

F.P.  T 


274  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

arrangement  of  jets,  can  be  made  to  dry  small  and  medium 
cores  at  a  cost  per  hour  cheaper  than  an  oven  for  similar 
work  using  solid  fuel  of  any  description — i.e.,  if  the  gas  in 
question  be  at  hand  and  of  moderate  cost. 


FUELS 

The  question  of  fuels  for  founders  and  those  interested, 
either  from  its  commercial  or  practical  side,  is  of  intense 
importance,  and  in  a  very  special  degree  is  this  the  case  with 
founders  that  do  a  large  business  in  dry-sand  and  loam 
castings.  Fuel  in  foundry  work  consists  principally  of  coke 
for  the  cupolas,  ovens,  gas  producers,  chaffer  or  fire-lamps, 
and  hot  air  dryers.  For  these  purposes  cokes  of  all  grades 
and  prices  are  used;  the  highest  quality  being  used  for  melting 
metal,  and  all  others  are  either  directly  or  indirectly  used  for 
the  drying  of  moulds.  Coal  in  many  foundries  is  used  for 
drying  purposes,  especially  where  gas,  hot  air,  and  the  newer 
modes  of  drying  have  not  yet  been  brought  into  practice;  also, 
where  the  improvising  of  fires  for  jobs  in  the  floor,  in  the  old- 
fashioned  method  of  drying  with  "  lump  coal  "  of  good  quality  > 
and  the  common  grate  of  the  oven  which  works  unaided  by 
force  draught,  are  still  in  practice.  The  list  of  fuels  that  are 
used  in  the  foundry  also  includes  dross  for  steam  raising  and 
in  some  places  for  gas  producers,  oil  for  crucible  melting,  and 
charcoal  to  a  limited  extent  for  annealing. 

The  testing  of  fuels  is  much  the  same  as  the  testing  of 
blackings,  that  is  to  say,  nothing  but  actual  contact  with  the 
work  these  have  to  perform  in  practice  will  definitely 
determine  their  true  character  and  value  for  the  foundry. 
Therefore,  it  is  only  by  observation  and  experience  that  we 
get  to  know  the  fuels  that  are  most  suitable  for  use  in  the 
foundry  or  elsewhere.  This  is  most  manifest  in  the  selection 
of  coal  for  grinding  into  coal-dust  for  the  mixing  of  green-sand 
facing  sand,  a  material  of  great  importance  in  this  division  of 
iron  founding. 

Coal  and  coke  mixed  in  suitable  proportions  are  frequently 
used  in  "  chaffer-drying,"  a  practice  much  in  evidence  where 
"  skin-drying  "  of  green-sand  work  is  necessary,  and  is  of 


FUELS  275 

daily  or  hourly  practice  in  loam  moulding,  either  for  hurrying 
on  the  drying  of  "  rough  coating,"  or  the  drying  of  moulds  in 
this  foundry  department,  preparatory  to  an  absolute  finish  by 
blackening,  etc.  Coke  by  itself  is  an  unsuitable  fuel  in  some 
cases  for  this  purpose,  as  it  burns  with  little  or  no  flame 
owing  to  its  deficiency  in  volatile  combustible  matter.  A 
bituminous  coal  which  burns  with  a  moderate  flame  gives  the 
best  results  for  the  drying  of  moulds  by  open  fires.  A  lean 
or  anthracitic  coal  which  burns  with  an  almost  smokeless 
flame  is  but  little  better  than  coke  for  the  firing  of 
moulds  in  the  floor  without  forced  draught,  but  such  a 
coal  is  usually  suitable  for  making  coal-dust. 

It  may  also  be  mentioned  that  the  greater  the  depth  of  a 
pit-fire  below  the  floor  level,  the  more  necessary  a  flaming 
coal,  within  certain  limits,  becomes.  These  pit-fires  being 
not  infrequently  in  the  form  of  miniature  bonfires,  the  heat 
rises  to  the  highest  part,  a  distance  at  times  considerable,  and 
thus  enables  the  extreme  top  of  the  mould,  so  situated,  to  be 
thoroughly  dried.  Fuels  as  indicated  here,  usually  give  a 
nice  brown  tinge  to  the  mould,  and  where  this  is  apparent, 
other  things  being  equal,  a  beautifully  skinned  casting  is  as  a 
rule  a  foregone  conclusion. 

Coke. — First,  we  consider  this  from  the  standpoint  of 
cupola  practice,  and  in  this  the  quality  of  coke  is  one  of  the 
most  important  things  in  melting  iron,  because  iron  melted 
in  a  cupola  is  in  constant  contact  with  the  fuel.  The  best  coke 
for  cupola  melting  must  be  able  to  sustain  the  burden  of  the 
charges  of  iron  in  the  cupola.  From  8  to  10  per  cent,  ash 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average,  and  it  should  not  contain 
too  much  volatile  matter  as  this  aggravates  the  tendency 
which  cupolas  have  for  "bridging"  or  "bunging,"  an 
error  in  melting  metal  which  means  so  much  lost  to  the 
foundry. 

With  good  coke  sulphur  should  not  exceed  0*50  per  cent., 
which  more  or  less  finds  its  way  into  the  castings,  the  best 
of  metal  thus  becoming  considerably  affected,  especially  as  it 
relates  to  mechanical  tests  both  transverse  and  tensile. 
Taking  the  market  prices  of  good  and  bad  coke,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  difference  is  comparatively  trifling;  the  wonder  is  to 


276  FACTS  ON  GENEBAL  FOUNDRY  PEACTICE 

practical  men  how  some  cokes  find  a  place  in  the  market  as 
cupola  cokes  at  all.  Such  good  luck  for  the  coke  merchants 
is  the  outcome  of  the  inefficiency  of  the  buyer,  and  his 
absolute  want  of  knowledge  of  the  points  that  go  to  make 
good  coke  for  cast  iron  cupola  melting. 

From  10  to  15  per  cent,  in  price  is  all  that  exists  between 
good  and  bad  coke  for  cupola  purposes,  and  for  this  some  take 
the  cheapest,  which  invariably  retards  melting,  which  in  turn 
reduces  output  from  the  cupola  considerably,  gives  inferior 
running  metal,  and  of  course  as  a  result  inferior  castings 
also.  These  results,  with  additional  expense  of  fettling  the 
cupola,  caused  by  abnormal  waste  of  time  and  material,  not 
to  mention  unnecessary  worry,  merely  for  a  paltry  few 
shillings,  condemns  such  practices  as  a  penny  wise  and 
pounds  foolish  policy  in  foundry  management. 

Dry  coke  of  good  quality  is  lighter  than  water,  therefore 
it  is  worth  while  noting  the  condition  in  which  it  is  received, 
as  it  passes  over  the  weighs,  and  compare  this  with  the  pay- 
ments. Some  make  it  a  point  to  keep  all  cokes  under  cover, 
but  a  certain  amount  of  water  or  moisture  are  necessary  to 
give  improved  working  in  the  cupola. 

Good  cupola  cokes  are  dark  grey  in  colour,  very  similar  to  a 
No.  4  iron,  sonorous  and  of  a  semi-metallic  lustre,  and  to  the 
practical  man  sight,  sound,  and  density  are,  apart  from 
analysis,  however  useful  and  necessary  this  may  be,  the 
methods  by  which  he  determines  good  from  bad.  If  to  such 
experience  is  added  the  knowledge  gained  by  the  chemist  in 
the  laboratory,  the  working  of  the  cupola  cannot  fail  to  be 
improved. 

The  variable  density  of  cokes  causes  mischief  in  the  cupola— 
unless  the  man  in  charge  of  it  knows  how  to  watch  and 
work  all  grades  according  to  their  own  peculiarities.  And, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  weight  or  measure  of  coke,  which 
forms  the  "bed  on  the  hearth"  of  the  cupola  may  when 
another  coke  is  used  be  altogether  insufficient  for  the  purpose 
intended.  Doubtless  the  absence  of  this  knowledge  has 
prematurely  "  bunged  up  "  cupolas  by  pig  metal  getting  down 
in  front  of  the  tuyers,  through  insufficiency  of  density  in  the 
coke  to  maintain  the  melting  zone  of  the  cupola  in  its 


FUELS  277 

normal  position  and  condition  throughout  the  various  stages 
of  the  melt. 

A  coke  for  melting  iron  in  a  cupola  may  have  a  high  calorific 
heat  value,  but  its  want  of  density  may  condemn  it  as  a  first 
class  cupola-coke,  because  insufficient  density  gives  inefficient 
resistance  to  the  load  of  iron  charges  in  the  cupola,  and,  as 
already  indicated,  precipitates  the  iron  too  hurriedly  down  to 
the  melting  zone,  thereby  reducing  the  melting  capacity 
of  the  cupola,  besides  producing  badly  melted  metal  for 
castings. 

Further,  fuels  for  cupola  foundry  practice  have  remained 
very  much  the  same  as  when  cupola  and  crucible  were  the 
only  processes  of  melting  metals  in  iron  and  brass  foundries. 
One  would  have  thought  that,  with  the  advent  of  the  hot 
blast  at  the  melting  furnaces  in  1828,  and  as  patented  by  Mr. 
Neilson,  and  first  adopted  at  Clyde  Ironworks,  near  Glasgow, 
and  the  great  development  in  output  and  cheapness  of  steel 
and  malleable  iron  since  Bessemer,  in  1856,  read  before 
the  "  Cheltenham  Meeting  of  the  British  Association  "  his 
wonderful  paper  entitled,  "  The  Manufacture  of  Malleable 
Iron  and  Steel  without  Fuel,"  should  have  brought  a  change 
ere  now. 

It  is  thus  a  matter  for  surprise  that  cupola  practice  in  the 
foundry,  and  its  relation  to  fuels,  solid  or  liquid,  remains  prac- 
tically the  same  as  it  was  prior  to  any  of  the  improvements 
in  smelting  and  melting  referred  to.  But,  while  this  is  so, 
much  has  been  done  with  regard  to  fuels  in  crucible  melting, 
within  certain  limits  in  the  finer  metal  castings  trade.  This 
is  specially  so  in  the  melting  of  large  quantities  of  the  finer 
metals.  Still,  where  heavy  melting  is  not  imperative,  the 
crucible,  with  solid  fuel  in  the  form  of  coke  of  a  medium 
quality  and  low  in  calorific  intensity,  or  coal,  aided  by 
chimney  draught,  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  cheapest 
and  best,  for  small  melts  of  all  metals  without  distinction,  even 
to  cast  iron,  which,  by  the  way,  many  foolishly  imagine  can- 
not be  melted  unless  on  the  lines  of  common  cupola  practice. 
The  process  of  "  liquid  fuel  meltings  "  is  but,  perhaps,  in 
its  infancy,  and  the  progress  made  by  the  different  methods 
for  a  number  of  years  back  has,  to  a  considerable  extent, 


278  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

yet  to  be  tested.  It  should  be  noted  that,  so  far,  any  sub- 
stitute for  crucible  furnace  melting  on  the  old  lines  has 
got  to  be  done  by  the  aid  of  a  blast.  But  whether  it  be  what 
is  known  as  the  "  Brass  Melting  Air  Furnace  "  or  those  types 
of  furnaces  burning  "  oil  or  gas,"  as,  for  example,  the  "  Cbarlier 
Furnace,"  in  both  cases  the  saving  to  a  very  great  extent, 
if  not  altogether  in  the  cost  of  crucibles,  is  a  foregone 
conclusion. 

The  air  furnace  for  heavy  brass  casting,  where  the  metal  is 
tapped  like  an  ordinary  foundry  cupola,  as  is  the  case  with 
"Meyer's  Patent  Brass  Melting  Air  Furnace,"  is  very 
commendable  for  heavy  work,  and  is  a  great  improvement  on 
melting  with,  say,  eight  or  ten  300  Ib.  crucibles  for  a  heavy 
brass  job,  and  pouring  their  contents  into  a  suitable  foundry 
ladle  to  cast  the  job  intended :  a  practice  not  uncommon 
before  air  furnaces  for  melting  brass  were  introduced,  and 
may  even  in  some  cases  be  seen  at  the  present  day. 

Non-Cupola  Coke  Fuels. — The  cokes  which  come  under 
this  title,  include  those  used  for  the  drying  of  moulds,  and 
the  manufacture  of  "producer  gas"  in  the  foundry,  and  for 
"  hot  air  drying  by  portable  fires  "  ;  all  of  which,  from  the 
common  "  slack  "  or  cinder,  to  the  superior  anthracite  coke 
are,  however  serviceable  in  the  foundry,  but  the  by-products 
of  the  gas  works.  The  former  of  these  so-called  cokes  is  of 
little  account  when  used  by  itself,  but  the  calorific  power  of 
the  latter  being  so  much  greater  than  the  former  makes  it 
much  sought  after  by  the  founder,  for  drying  with  the 
portable  hot-air  dryer,  a  method  of  drying  which  does  away 
to  a  very  great  extent  with  smoke  and  the  obnoxious 
gases  in  floor  drying,  a  thing  so  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  foundry  workers.  This,  apart  from  the 
economical  side  of  the  question,  where  there  is  room  and 
work  for  its  adoption,  will  undoubtedly  make  the  "  hot  air 
dryer  "  supersede  all  other  antiquated  methods  of  drying  in 
the  floor  when  such  is  necessary. 

In  the  use  of  these  cokes  in  the  foundry  there  is  an 
inclination  to  expect  too  much,  and  in  that  way  chaffer 
firing  is  retarded.  The  best  of  them  ought  to  be  assisted  by 
a  little  live  coal  for  this  purpose,  and  so  facilitate  combustion, 


FOUNDEY  TOOLS  279 

which  in  turn  gives  improved  results  in  drying,  with  a 
consequent  saving  of  time  also.  Of  course  the  slowness 
with  which  these  cokes  (when  normal)  burn  in  the  fires  in 
question  is  entirely  due  to  the  want  of  blast  or  reinforced 
draught  of  some  kind  or  other.  Cokes  of  this  class  must 
have  some  sort  of  forced  draught,  otherwise  their  use  for 
drying  purposes  in  the  foundry  is  not  commendable. 

It  is  evident  then  that  forced  draught  of  some  kind  or 
other  must  be  considered  where  hot-air  drying  as  a  system 
is  to  be  adopted,  and  for  this  purpose  a  blast  pipe 
arrangement  for  the  foundry  becomes  indispensable  to  an 
extent  proportional  to  the  wants  of  business  anticipated 
in  this  direction.  However,  this  need  not  be  taken  too 
seriously.  For  instance,  under  certain  circumstances  a  small 
pipe  direct  from  the  steam  boiler,  applied  to  the  hot-air 
dryer,  will  give  equal  satisfaction,  in  so  far  as  the  working 
of  a  "  hot-air  dryer  "  is  concerned.  And  with  this  method  of 
blowing,  if  superheated  steam  be  applied,  and  coke  of  normal 
quality  be  used,  results  will  thereby  be  proportionately 
greater.  However,  steam  from  30  Ibs.  to  40  Ibs.  pressure 
may  do  all  that  is  required,  and  by  this  method  of  blowing 
the  coke,  fire  engine  and  fan  are  at  least  dispensed  with. 

FOUNDRY  TOOLS 

In  the  matter  of  tools  as  distinguished  from  plant  there  is, 
perhaps,  but  little  to  say  in  so  far  as  the  tools  of  a  jobbing 
foundry  are  concerned.  Consequently  the  question  becomes 
focussed  within  somewhat  meagre  limits,  i.e.,  if  we  except 
the  hundred-and-one  nick-nacks  that  are  known  as  tools  to 
moulders,  although  these  with  rammers,  riddles,  barrows, 
shovels,  and  coke  baskets,  etc.,  etc.,  in  goodly  supply,  are  all 
items  to  be  considered  in  furnishing  tools  for  the  foundry. 
Further,  there  are  tools  for  the  cupola,  sling-chains  and 
hooks  of  various  types  (as  will  be  seen  further  on  as  crane 
furnishings)  for  the  lifting  and  laying  of  the  variety  of  loads 
known  to  founding  in  all  its  branches.  These,  if  we  include 
pneumatic  tools  and  portable  hot-air  drying  fires,  can  only  be 
touched  upon  briefly  as  we  proceed. 


280  FACTS  ON   GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

Shovels. — In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  to  profit  that 
one  of  the  first  things  a  sand  moulder  should  have  is  a  good 
shovel.  Give  a  man  a  shovel  he  can  call  his  own,  at  least 
while  he  is  in  any  given  employment,  as  by  doing  so  he  thus 
takes  an  interest  in  keeping  it  in  good  order,  and  thereby  the 
lengthiest  possible  existence  of  the  shovel  is  guaranteed,  and 
the  owner  for  the  time  being  will  do  more  for  his  money  than 
is  possible  where  this  habit  is  not  practised.  Nothing  wastes 
a  shovel  so  much  as  its  being  badly  kept,  and  what  is  every- 
body's business  in  thh  matter  is,  to  use  a  hackneyed  phrase, 
nobody's  business.  Therefore,  if  the  shovels  provided  for 
moulders  in  a  foundry  be  not  distributed  on  the  lines  suggested, 
but  scattered  here  and  there,  as  it  were,  on  the  foundry  floor, 


FIG.  154.  FIG.  155. 


the  property  of  all  alike,  cleaning,  trimming,  and  otherwise 
oiling,  at  the  end  of  the  week,  of  such  shovels  will  undoubtedly 
be  utterly  unknown,  and  as  a  result  deterioration  and  its 
consequent  loss  to  the  employer  will  inevitably  follow.  This 
loss  is  intensified  by  unnecessary  exertion  on  the  part  of 
the  employee,  the  minimum  of  work  being  done  by  the 
maximum  of  physical  effort.  To  those  who  have  never 
counted  the  cost,  the  foregoing  may  appear  a  small  matter ; 
nevertheless,  it  is  one  of  those  factors  of  waste,  or  leakage, 
often  too  lightly  passed  over,  and  a  foundry  badly  equipped 
with  this  simple  tool  means  money  wasted  in  every  phase  of 
founding ;  indeed,  this  leakage  is  to  be  found  in  some  of 
the  shops  where  one  would  least  of  all  expect  to  find  it.  One 
of  the  most  painful  things  for  a  foreman  to  endure  is  to  see, 


F 


FOUNDRY  TOOLS  281 

it  may  be,  two  or  three  men  waiting  their  turn  for  a 
shovel  or  some  such  tool  throughout  the  process  of  moulding 
his  job. 

A  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish  management  is  in  part,  as 
a  rule,  embodied  in  an  inferiority  and  scarcity  of  tools,  and 
as  the  shovel  has  'been  taken  as  an  example,  one  can  only 
add  that  the  shovel  or  spade  which  cannot  cut  clean  in  digging 
and  thereafter  discharge  its  contents  easily,  should  be 
attended  to  and  put  right,  in  a  similar  way  to  the  machine 
that  is  failing  to  keep  up  its  output  through  lack 
of  repairs.  What  applies  to  the  shovel  in  this 
respect  applies  to  all  tools  alike  in  the  foundry, 
and  were  more  attention  paid  to  those  seeming 
trifles  as  they  here  and  there  exist,  more  satis- 
factory results  would  undoubtedly  follow.  In- 
difference as  to  condition  and  supplies  df%the 
minor  tools,  not  to  mention  aught  else,  means 
money  wasted  which  otherwise  could  be  saved. 

Beams. — The  beam  for  turning  moulding 
boxes,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  154,  and  which 
could  be  illustrated  in  many  forms  and  sections 
(were  it  not  that  brevity  forbids  it)  is  a  common  tool  of 
long  standing  in  specialty  or  jobbing  shops.  The  beam 
links  and  stirrups  which  constitute  the  beam  as  a  whole 
are  illustrated  in  Figs.  154,  155  and  156.  Of  course,  other 
designs  with  a  more  costly  equipment  might  easily  be  given. 
Suffice  it  to  say  this  type,  for  economy  and  handiness  for 
such  jobs  as  tank  plates  and  things  common  in  jobbing  work, 
is  not  likely  to  be  excelled.  These  beams,  light  or  heavy, 
where  good  practice  is  attended  to,  are  all  made  from  hard 
wood,  and  mounted  or  trimmed,  in  some  cases,  elaborately. 
All  the  same,  a  handy  jobbing  moulder  is  not  often  at  a  loss 
for  a  tool  of  this  kind,  because  if  he  cannot  get  one  of 
wood  then  his  next  shift  may  be  some  sort  of  a  beam  in 
malleable  iron,  but  if  beaten  here  also,  he  will  fall  back  on  the 
inevitable,  namely,  cast  iron,  and  cast  one  somewhat  similar 
in  section  to  Fig.  158,  B,  which  in  all  probability  would  serve 
his  purpose  very  well,  especially  if  it  were  a  case  of  lifting 
some  check  or  cope  from  10  to  15  tons'  weight,  and  also  act 


y 


282  FACTS  ON  GENEEAL  FOUNDKY  PEACTIOE 

as  a  valuable  weight  and  binder  for  weighting  or  binding  a 
cope  or  top  part.     However,  take  Fig.  154  as  a  pattern  in  this 
respect,  and,  of  course,  of  any  section  desirable,  then  by  substi- 
tuting a  strong  sling  chain  for  the  links,  as  seen  at  Fig.  154, 
a  very  good  beam  is  formed  for  heavy  lifts  in  the  class  of  work 
suggested.     Hence,  with  S  and  C  hooks  and  ropes,  or  perhaps 
chains — although  chains  are  not  so  handy  as  ropes  here — one 
can  lift  comparatively  easily  in  this  way  any  load  within  the 
strength  limits  of  the  beam  and  lifting  capacity  of 
A      any  given  crane  that  may  be  employed  for  such  work. 
, — ^C  Such  are  the  stratagems  in  jobbing  moulding  that 

' — •  the   term   tool    is    really   ambiguous    to    a   degree, 

and  is  doubtless  without  limit  in  its  application. 
This  is  borne  out  by  the  many  devices  the  moulder 
has  to  resort  to  in  his  everyday  work,  so  to  speak, 
in  the  foundry.  In  short,  a  jobbing  moulder,  to 
be  successful,  must  be  a  man  of  many  shifts,  as  he 
has  frequently  to  make  tools  in  jobbing  practice  out 
of  what,  to  the  uninitiated,  may  appear  at  times  to 
r— '  be  nothing  more  than  a  heap  of  dumped  cast-iron 

FIG  157     scraP»  or  perhaps  malleable  and  cast  iron,  as  the 

case  may  be. 

Clamps,  Ringers,  Binders  and  Stools. — The  uses  to  which 
this  quartette  of  tools  are  applied  must  be  considered  collec- 
tively, because  where  we  find  the  one  tool,  we  usually  find  all 
of  them  in  some  form  or  other  doing  their  share  of  the  work 
at  the  binding  of  some  cylinder,  condenser,  bottom,  or  such 
castings  as  require  abnormal  strength  of  binding  to  secure  the 
mould  and  cores  at  the  time  of  pouring. 

While  the  foregoing  is  the  prime  duty  for  which  these  tools 
are  made,  their  usefulness  for  other  purposes  in  many 
foundries  cannot  be  overestimated,  but  need  not  be  further 
referred  to  at  present. 

Clamps. — Figure  157  represents  a  common  type  of  cast-iron 
clamp  usually  employed  for  the  clamping  of  boxes  or  copes 
previous  to  casting.  These  tools  are  made  to  many 
dimensions,  particularly  in  length  and  section,  and  may  weigh 
anywhere  in  pounds  from  5  to  500 ;  and  when  such  weight  as 
the  latter  is  necessary,  the  eye  A,  as  seen  at  Fig.  157,  is  very 


FOUNDRY  TOOLS  283 

serviceable  for  slinging  purposes  and  thereby  binding  them 
comparatively  easily  in  their  places  on  their  respective  jobs. 
The  grasp,  or  distance  between  the  toes  of  these  clamps,  may 
be  anywhere  from  3  ins.  to  6  ft.  or  8  ft.  as  required.  Some 
resort  to  malleable  iron,  about  2  ins.  square,  for  the  making 
of  these  clamps  when  beyond  the  smaller  dimensions.  Still, 
experience  in  both  types  has  declared  cast-iron  clamps,  as 
illustrated  at  Fig.  157,  to  be  by  far  the  safest,  cheapest  and 
best  for  work  that  usually  goes  by  the  name  of  "pit  moulding," 
i.e.,  where  binders  and  ringers  are  not  adaptable 
or  perhaps  procurable. 

Ringers  and  Binders.  —  In  Fig.  158  there  is 
shown  a  sectional  elevation  of  ringer  and  binder, 
which  is  given  in  this  form  for  convenience  of  space. 
Also,  these  are  both  shown  in  section  as  they 
appear  together  at  the  binding  of  any  job  that  is 
about  to  be  cast  where  this  sort  of  moulding  is  in 
operation.  A,  in  Fig.  158,  is  the  ringer,  and 
B  of  the  same  figure  is  the  binder  ;  these  ringers  FIG.  158. 
are,  as  a  rule,  made  from  malleable  iron  of, 
say,  from  1  in.  to  2  ins.  square,  and  are  used  for  many  other 
purposes  in  the  foundry  besides  binding;  and,  of  course, 
the  binders  are  all  made  from  cast  iron,  and  vary  in  section 
and  design  according  to  the  needs  or  wants  of  the  foundry.  C 
is  a  small  oblong  piece  of  iron,  preferably  malleable,  and  is 
placed,  as  shown  at  Fig.  158,  between  binder  and  ringer  for 
the  purpose  of  bedding  both  to  each  other  the  better,  as  also 
the  safer  and  more  solid  driving  of  the  wedges  during  the 
process  of  binding  any  job  preparatory  to  casting  it.  Obviously 
the  foregoing  on  "  binding "  clearly  indicates  the  use  of 
wedges  in  this  division  of  moulding.  But  while  this  is  so,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  for  a  similar  purpose,  namely,  the 
holding  down  of  copes  and  such  like  as  previously  suggested, 
bolts  are  used  in  specialty  work  and  where,  as  a  rule,  no 
ringers  are  employed.  The  binders  in  such  cases  have  special 
oblong  holes  cast  in  them  for  bolts  passing  right  down 
through  binder  and  casing  flanges  or  otherwise,  and  by  this 
simple  device  the  job  is  bound  by  the  tightening  of  the  bolts 
with  their  respective  nuts.  This  is  a  practice  common  to 


284  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY   PRACTICE 

marine  cylinder  work,  which  does  away  with  the  use  of  clamps 
and  ringers  altogether;  and,  wherever  in  operation,  facilitates 
the  making  ready  of  a  job  for  casting. 

Further,  where  average  spherical  pit  work  or  such-like  is 
cast,  the  ringers,  as  illustrated  by  A,  Fig.  158,  for  safety  and 
handiness  of  working,  should  be  made  to  lengths,  thus  :  10  ft., 
6  ft.  and  2  ft.  Six  to  each  of  these  lengths,  with  stools  as 
seen  at  Fig.  159,  may  be  regarded  as  a  foundry  pit's  tools  for 
binding  any  job  capable  of  being  cast  in  it. 

It  is  a  good  feature  with  short  ringers  to  have  them  made 
with  a  crook  at  one  of  the  ends  instead  of  being  square  at  both 
ends,  as  by  this  means  extensions  are  easily  made 
by  simply  hooking  the  crooked  end  through  the 
end  of  the  square  ringer  and  thereby  getting  the 
desired  extension — a  convenience  often  required 
at  pit  casting. 

Stools. — Three  favourite  lengths  to  this  design 
are  given  as  follows  :  24  ins.,  18  ins.,  12  ins.  and 
6  ins.  (see  Fig.  159).     All  these  different  lengths 
may  be  made  from  the  one  full  length  of  pattern  by  shifting 
the  top,  5,  inwards  to  the  lengths  stated.    Thus  is  summarised 
the   four  principal  tools  used  in  the  binding  of  pit  work  in 
a  foundry. 

Having  previously  referred  to  C  an^  8  hooks,  these 
with,  crane-sling  chains,  Figs.  160  and  161,  embrace  all 
that  as  a  rule  is  classified  as  crane  furnishings.  Each  of  these 
has  an  individuality  its  own,  and  to  take  each  in  detail 
and  stipulate  its  special  duty  in  the  foundry  would  take 
more  time  and  space  than  we  have  at  our  command.  The 
following,  however,  may  be  said :  C  hooks  and  S  hooks  are 
made  from  J-in.  up  to  2  in.  round  iron  or  even  more,  the 
latter  being  pointed  or  formed  at  one  of  the  ends  as  well  as 
lengthened  to  suit  the  peculiarity  of  the  work  for  which  these 
S  hooks  are  designed  and  made.  The  C  hook  is  best  suited 
for  heavy  work  and  when  slinging  with  a  chain  it  is  very 
handy  for  passing  through  the  "  loop  "  or  "  bow  "  of  the  chain 
as  it  appears  when  doubled  up  at  medium  and  heavy  lifts. 
Also  this  hook  for  similar  work  is  most  serviceable  for 
lengthening  sling-chains  where  shortness  is  a  difficulty,  and 


FOUNDRY  TOOLS 


285 


where  the  sling-gabs  of  same  are  at  times  unfavourable  for 
catching  up  what  may  be  comparatively  easy  for  the  hooks  in 
question. 

Figure  160  is  a  screw  hook,  and  when  these  are  attached  to 
each  end  of  a  "triple  sling  chain,"  prove  themselves  to  be 
very  handy  tools  wherever  exact  level  slinging  is  imperative. 
In  point  of  fact,  where  "  the  sling  of  three  "is  in 
practice,  as  we  often  find  it  to  be  the  case  with 
cores,  a   sling  chain  of   this  kind  is   absolutely 
necessary — that  is  to  say,  if  method  and  economy 
is  of  any  importance  at  all.     Where  the  triple- 
sling  chain  as  suggested  cannot  be  profitably  em- 
ployed, a  single  screw  hook,  as  seen  at  Fig.  160, 
for   general   lifting   purposes   will  prove    a   very 
handy    and     profitable    tool    in    most     jobbing 
foundries. 

Fig.  161  illustrates  what  is  known  as  a  "double 
hook,"  and  the  top  crook  A  which  lies  at  right 
angles  to  the  right  and  left  section  of  this  hook 
makes  it  an  indispensable  tool  in  foundries  that 
have  two  or  more  cranes  (especially  derrick)  in 
the  foundry.  But  whether  this  be  the  case  or 
not,  it  is  a  very  handy  tool,  apart  from  its 
uses  in  shifting  from  derrick  to  derrick  the 
miscellaneous  loads  in  the  everyday  work  of  a 
foundry  wherever  the  "  traverser "  is  not  yet  in  opera- 
tion. 

Pneumatic  Tools. — Tools  of  this  description  are  gaining 
much  prominence  in  foundry  practice,  and  to  some  are  the 
acme  of  perfection  in  this  sort  of  foundry  equipment  and  that 
of  the  fettling  shop  as  well.  But  it  is  with  this,  the  latest 
improvement  in  tools,  as  it  has  been  with  the  moulding 
machine — which,  by  the  way,  is  no  new  invention — that  is, 
failure  has  in  some  cases  followed  the  adoption  of  pneumatic 
appliances,  because  of  misapplication  and  the  ignorance  of 
the  buyer,  or  perhaps  by  what  is  called  the  good  business 
capabilities  of  the  patentee  of  such  tools  or  his  representative 
in  business. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  permissible  to  say,  that  more 


FIG.  160. 


286  FACTS  ON  GENEBAL   FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

than  thirty  years  ago  the  writer  saw  moulding  machines 
scrapped  that  had  been  doing  duty  every  working  day  for  a 
number  of  years  previously.  These  machines  not  having  given 
the  satisfaction  anticipated,  their  owners  returned  to  the  old 
stereotyped  method  by  bedding  down  the  class  of  work 
referred  to  in  the  floor,  not  turning  over  with  bottom  and  top 
flasks  as  most  moulders  would  imagine,  and  are  continuing 
to  do  so  up  to  date,  and  at  a  cost  considerably  less  per 
casting  than  was  possible  with  the  machines  in  question. 
And  just  one  other  case  in  point,  one  of  the  largest  foundries 

in  the  United  Kingdom  equipped 
a  certain  class  of  work  with  tools, 
plant  and  patterns  of  the  latest 
type  in  hydraulic  machine  mould- 
ing, at  a  cost  of  many  thousands 
of  pounds,  and  after  working  this 
plant  for  all  it  was  worth  for 
FIG.  i6i.  a  considerable  time,  this  firm 

also    had   ultimately   to    consign 

this  costly  and  special  hydraulic  machine  plant  to  the  scrap 
heap. 

These,  as  stated,  from  actual  experience  are  enough  to 
shatter  the  belief  even  of  many  who  hold  strong  convictions 
in  the  utility  of  mechanical  appliances  and  their  adaptation  to 
foundry  practice,  whether  these  be  manipulated  by  wind,  water, 
steam  or  electricity. 

The  one  grand  question  to  decide  with  these  tools  is 
their  suitability,  whether  it  be  with  moulding  machines 
or  pneumatic  foundry  tools  of  any  description  at  all.  Never- 
theless these  tools  and  machines  have  their  place  in  the 
foundry  and  can  be  applied  to  much  profit  when  judiciously 
thought  out  and  adapted  to  a  field  of  work  absolutely  suitable. 
To  make  sure  of  this,  one  must  listen  attentively  to  what  is 
being  said  about  any  particular  tool  or  machine,  and  if 
what  has  been  said  applies  to  one's  work,  and  is  confirmed  by 
experience,  then  to  such  an  extent  the  safety  in  adopting 
machine  or  pneumatic  tools  of  any  kind  becomes  compara- 
tively secured.  Of  course  it  takes  much  experience  to  decide 
such  matters,  and  if  this  be  wanting,  losses  in  such  purchases 


FOUNDRY  TOOLS  287 

to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  will  more  than  likely  follow,  and 
the  prejudice,  too  common  amongst  many,  for  an  improved 
foundry  practice  become  intensified  through  such  failures  as 
herein  suggested. 

Pneumatic  tools  in  the  foundry  are  now  almost  too  nume- 
rous to  mention,  and  whether  it  be  for  actual  foundry  practice 
or  fettling,  the  wants  of  either  are  now  largely  catered  for  by 
foundry  furnishers  of  every  description.  In  the  foundry  there 
are  nowadays  pneumatic  ramming,  riddling,  sifting,  and 
blowing  of  moulds.  Also,  for  ':  blazing  "  during  the  process 
of  skin-drying  moulds,  and  even  for  the  drilling  of  holes  in 
flasks  in  different  parts  of  the  foundry,  the  pneumatic  drill 
tool  is  to  be  found  doing  such  work  profitably  in  some  of 
the  up-to-date  foundries  in  the  country. 

A  great  saving  is  claimed  in  the  fettling  shops  since  the 
introduction  of  the  pneumatic  hammer  and  sand-blast  process 
of  cleaning  castings,  which  is  said  to  give  an  improved  skin  for 
painting  or  otherwise.  These  do  not  exhaust  all  that  pneumatic 
application  can  do  in  the  foundry,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
the  use  of  them  for  such  work  as  "  chilling  metal  for  specific 
purposes "  is  advisable.  Here  follows  a  quotation  from  an 
up-to-date  journal  loud  in  the  praise  of  pneumatic  tools  for 
the  foundry : — "  In  some  classes  of  long  slender  castings, 
such  as  piping,  where  the  cores  are  built  round  a  thin  tubing, 
and,  as  is  sometimes  specified,  chaplets  have  to  be  sparingly 
used,  the  cooling  effect  of  a  current  of  compressed  air  will  be 
found  a  very  useful  and  convenient  expedient  to  use  to  pre- 
vent the  core  being  lifted  in  the  middle  by  molten  metal." 
The  above  appears  to  the  author  to  be  entirely  opposed 
to  sound  practice. 

Gas  and  Hot-Air  Driers. — For  a  goodly  number  of  years 
the  drying  of  moulds,  particularly  of  the  larger  class,  outside 
the  ovens  or  stoves  of  the  foundry  has  been  done  by  gas,  and 
by  what  is  known  as  the  hot-air  process  of  drying.  The  first 
of  these  processes,  in  which  what  is  known  as  the  Bunsen 
burner  is  largely  used,  is  a  process  of  drying  suitable 
either  for  horizontal  or  vertical  moulded  work,  but  preferably 
the  latter  ;  and  in  point  of  fact,  this  process  is  mostly  employed 
in  ingot-mould  casting  and  vertical  pit-pipe  moulding.  But 


288  FACTS  ON  GENERAL  FOUNDRY  PRACTICE 

for  drying  moulds  in  the  floor,  the  "  portable  hot-air  drier  " 
that  is  usually  fired  with  gas  coke  is  by  far  the  handiest  and 
most  popular  system  of  drying  moulds  outside  the  foundry 
oven,  whether  in  loam  or  dry-sand  practice. 

However,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  hot-air  driers  of  any 
k:nd  can  be  regarded  as  tools,  although  these  are  of  a  portable 
construction,  and  are  moved  about  for  duty  in  the  drying  of 
moulds  in  the  floor  as  referred  to.  Suffice  it  to  say,  these 
rank  as  of  first-rate  importance,  where  floor  drying  is  an 
absolute  necessity.  Therefore,  whether  the  portable  hot-air 
drier  be  considered  foundry  equipment  or  a  tool,  such  is  really 
immaterial;  but  as  an  adjunct  in  this  division  of  founding, 
and  by  its  serviceableness  in  the  drying  of  loam  and  dry-sand 
moulds  in  the  floor,  its  adoption  is  more  and  more  manifesting 
itself  to  the  advantage  of  all  concerned  in  the  foundries  doing 
heavy  and  medium  loam  and  dry-sand  castings. 

The  many  types  of  hot-air  driers  in  the  market  in  these 
days  are  largely,  if  not  altogether,  confined  to  the  class  that 
are  blown  by  air  in  some  form  or  other.  This  is  all  the  more 
surprising  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  and  as  previously  stated, 
steam  can  be  applied  with  equal  usefulness  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, thus  doing  away  with  the  service  of  the  engine  and  fan 
which  are  absolutely  necessary  for  blowing  the  hot-air  drier. 
A  small  steam  jet  applied  in  a  somewhat  similar  way  to  the 
one  that  admits  the  air  for  the  blast  pipe  fitted  up  in  the 
foundry  for  those  hot-air  driers  will  do  the  work  of  blowing. 
Also,  the  steam  pressure  need  not  be  above  40  Ibs.  on  the 
square  inch,  but  the  higher  the  pressure  the  better  the  blow, 
and  the  jet  for  admitting  the  steam  to  the  fire  should  not  be 
of  greater  diameter  than  is  required  for  a  needle  to  pass 
through  it. 

The  popularity  of  this  system  of  drying  is  evidence  of  its 
superiority  over  the  old-fashioned  way  of  drying  floor  work  by 
coal  which  was  usually  of  a  superior  quality,  and  with  impro- 
vised fires  or  chaffers  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  the  waste  of 
coal  and  coke  (the  latter  not  so  frequently  used  as  the  former) 
when  compared  with  the  modern  hot-air  process  of  drying  is 
all  too  well  known  to  experience  to  admit  of  further  comment, 
i.e.,  wherever  consecutive  floor  drying  is  necessary. 


FOUNDRY  TOOLS  289 

Apart  from  the  commercial  side  of  the  question  of  drying 
in  the  floor,  (and  as  previously  mentioned)  the  hot-air  process 
has  on  the  grounds  of  improved  conditions  for  all  who  work  in 
the  foundry  much  to  commend  it,  as  by  this  system  a  purer 
atmosphere  than  was  possible  in  the  old  system  of  drying  is  in 
a  measure  guaranteed.  This,  if  nothing  more,  is  quite  enough 
in  itself  to  make  it  commendable.  It  is  a  fact  that  by  far  the 
greatest  proportion  of  moulders  or  foundry  workers  on  inside 
duty  are  prematurely  affected  by  chest  troubles  through  the 
density  of  smoke  common  to  such  foundries  where  coal  drying 
consecutively  in  the  floor  by  the  old  system  is  practised. 

Although  by  this  new  process  of  drying  we  do  not  maintain 
that  the  smoke  nuisance  in  the  foundries  with  the  class  of 
work  suggested  is  entirely  got  rid  of,  still  at  the  same  time 
the  very  considerable  reduction  in  the  amount  of  smoke 
improves  the  working  conditions  in  similar  proportion. 
Obviously,  illustrations  of  any  particular  type  cannot  be 
judiciously  given,  but  with  the  hot-air  driers  as  with  other 
tools,  individual  circumstances  will  dictate  individual  wants, 
and  the  foundry  furnisher  will  best  supply  the  rest. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  all  hot-air  driers  are  much  the  same  in 
practice,  but  a  good  type  is  designed  with  air-regulating 
chamber,  fire-box,  and  hot-air  chamber.  Besides  what  has 
been  stated,  the  air  supply  may  be  attended  to  by  a  small 
blower  and  motor,  and,  if  desired,  can  be  directly  connected  to 
the  drier. 

Perhaps  the  best  and  most  economical  way  of  working 
these  "  driers  "  is  to  install  a  line  of  5-in.  air  piping  along  the 
walls  of  those  foundries  doing  much  floor  drying,  and  with 
suitable  branches  to  attach  the  blast  pipe  to  the  portable  air 
driers,  as  the  exigencies  of  the  everyday  work  of  the  foundry 
demands.  For  blowing  these  driers,  which  are  best  fired  when 
using  good  gasworks  coke,  air  at  an  approximate  pressure  of 
2  or  3  ozs.  to  the  square  inch  should  be  ample. 


F.P. 


INDEX 


AGRICULTURAL  castings,  metal  for, 

76 
Aluminium  alloys,  228 

brass  and  bronze,  229 

bronze,  215 

charging  the  crucible  for,  225 

demand  for,  229 

gating  of,  224 

malleability  of,  229 

melting  of,  224 

moulding,    sand   suitable    for, 

228 
price    and  specific  gravity  of, 

228 

specific  gravity  of,  and  scab- 
bing, 222 

temperature  for,  226 
unalloyed,  225 
Analysis,  chemical,  of  English  and 

Scotch  pig  irons,  235 — 240 
Analysis,     chemical,    of    moulding 

sands,  14 
Annealing  chilled  wheels,  156 

malleable  cast  iron,  232 

BANK  pipe  core  boxes,  249 
pipe  patterns,  248 
pipes,  cores  for,  148 
Beams  for  foundry  use,  281 
Bell-mouthed  pipes,  97 
Bend  pipes,  99 
Binders,  282 
Black-sand,  20 

Blistering  of  cylinder  castings,  119 
Blowholes  and  shrmkholes,  30 
Bogey-wheels,  design  of  chills  for, 

154 
Boiling  points  of  metals,  246 


Boss  patterns,  air  vessel,  92 

Bottle-neck  pipes,  96 

Bottom   of  moulds,    pressure   on, 

58 

Boxes,  6 
Branch  pipes,  98 
Brass  castings,  cooling,  214 

"  draw  "  in,  210 
moulding,  208 
position  of  casting, 

211 
foundry,  cellar  or  ashpit  for 

a,  206 

furnaces,  204 

temperature  of  casting,  209 
wastage  in  melting,  209 
Bronze,  aluminium,  215 

and  brass  aluminium,  229 
phosphor,  215 
plug  gating  of,  216 
"  Burning  "  cold  castings,  33 

heating   castings  pre- 
paratory to,  34 

CAMBER  and  uniformity  of  cooling 

castings,  51 

Casings,  pipe  factory,  163 
Casting  facedown,  24 

position  of,  dry- sand  cylin- 
ders, 122 
job  pump  pipes, 

106 

Castings,  sandless,  156 
Chaplets,  creosoted,  44 

on      polished     and     un- 
polished parts,  42 
tinned,  43 
Chilled  cast-iron  wheels,  154 


292 


INDEX 


Chilled  wheels,  annealing  of,  156 
Chills  for  bogey  wheels,  design  of, 

154,  156 

metal  most  suitable  for,  155 
C -hooks,  284 
Clamps,  ringers,  binders  and  stools, 

282 
Coal  dust,  19 

for  facing  sand,  19 
Cokes  for  foundry  uses,  275 

good  cupola,  276 

Colour  as  the  indicator  of  tem- 
perature, 79 

Compressed  gas  sustaining  a 
mould  at  the  time  of  pouring, 
41 

Condenser  patterns,  251,  252 
Cooling  brass  castings,  214 
Core  boxes,  bank  pipe,  249 

gum,  for  cores,  28 
Core-irons  and  cores  for  pipes,  100 
making  for  dry -sand  cylinders, 

119 

pump-pipe,  105 
sand,  medium,  137 
Core  sands,  core-irons,  and  cores, 

132 
sands  for  large  medium  and 

small  cores,  136 
Cores  for  bank  pipes,  148 

for  green-sand  pipes,  147,  148 
gas-engine  cylinder  jacket,  131 
green-sand,  for  pipes,  147 
gum  water  for,  28 
jacket     cylinder,     for    petrol 

engine  work,  133 
jacket,      for     loam     cylinder 

moulds,  127 
method    of    placing,    in    S.V. 

cylinder  mould,  185 
placing    Corliss    cylinder,     in 

dry-sand  moulds,  145 
sand  for  small,  138 
sand  jacket,  126 
screw  hooks  for  slinging,  etc., 

285 
steam  cylinder  jacket,  126 


Cores,  vertical  dry-sand  pipe,  150 

vertical  loam  pipe,  149 
Corliss     cylinders,    casting,    three 

core  method,  140 
Corliss     cylinders,    casting,      five 

core  method,  142 
Corliss    cylinders,    casting,    seven 

core  method,  143 
Cotter  cores  cast  in  rams,  85 
Cranes,  6 
Cupola  and  melting,  10 

charging  the,  for  cylinders 

in  a  jobbing  shop,  73 
cokes,  276 
for  melting  malleable  cast, 

230 

Cylinder  castings,  blistering  of,  119 
cover  castings,  defects  on, 

86 
moulds,  finishing  dry-sand, 

117 

in  dry-sand,  ram- 
ming, 116 
Cylinders  and  engine  parts,  metal 

for,  74 
in  dry-sand,  venting,  116 

DAMP  floors,  200 
Design,  tank  plate,  49 
Diagonal  bars  and  shrinkage,  48 
"  Draw  "  in  brass  castings,  210 

speculum  metal,  218 
Drying  an  air  vessel  core,  95 
gas  and  hot  air,  287 
ovens,  gas,  272 
Dry-sand,  15 

and  dry  ashes  in  loam  mould- 
ing, 200 
cylinder  moulds,  closing,  120 

finishing,  117 

cylinders,  core  making  for,  119 
position   of   casting, 

122 

facing  sand,  21 
gating  cylinders  in,  124 
moulds,  temperature  of  metal 
for,  82 


INDEX 


293 


Dry-sand,    venting     cylinders    in, 
116 

EQUALITY  of  metal,  50 
Examples  of  feeding,  66,  67 

FACING  sand,  dry-sand,  21 

for      gear      wheels, 

green-sand,  19 
green-sand  light,  16 
heavy  and  medium, 

16 
milling  of  green- sand, 

18 
Feeding  automatically  by  hot  metal 

only,  70,  71 
by  one  rod  only,  68 
decentralised,  67 
open-sand  castings,  70,  71 
or  compressing  open-sand 

castings,  69,  219 
Finishing  dry- sand  cylinder  moulds, 

117 
Flasks,  their  use  in  loam  moulding, 

195,  196 
Foundry  floor,  the,  5 

oven  construction,  269 
tiring  the,  272 
gas  drying,  272 
materials     of     con- 
struction, 270 
situation,  271 

Fuel  for  chaffer  and  hot-air  drying, 
274 


GAS  and  hot-air  drying,  287 

drying  in  foundry  ovens,  272 
engine  castings,  core  irons  and 

core  sands  for,  132 
cylinder    jacket   cores, 

131 

Gates  and  shrinkage,  165 
Gating  aluminium,  224 

cylinders  in  diy-sand,  124 
pipe  moulds,  102 


Graphite  in  pig  iron,  242 
Green-sand  cores  for  pipes,  147 

facing    sand   for    gear 

wheels,  19 
light,  16 
heavy  and  medium, 

16 

milled,  18 
pipes,   core   irons  for, 

148 
Grey    metal    and     steel    mixture 

castings,  77 
Gum  water  and  plumbago  wash,  28 


HEAVY  projections  or  inequality  of 

metals,  53 
Hooks    for     slinging     cores,    &c., 

screw,  285 

C,  8'  and  double,  284 
Hot-air  drying,  fuel  for,  274 
Hot  metal,  feeding  by  application 
of,  70 

INCREASING  breadth  or  depth  of 
capped  spur  wheels,  267 

Increasing  breadth  or  depth  of  non- 
capped  spur  wheels,  264 

Iron  patterns,  247 

JACKET  core,  number  of  tubes  in  a, 

129 
cores    for    loam     cylinder 

moulds,  127 
sand,  126 

steam  cylinder,  126 
cylinder    cores    for    petrol 
engine  work,  331 

LOAM  board,  setting  a,  181 

moulding  and  shrinkage,  55 
dry-sand  and  dry 
ashes  in,  200,  201 
pattern  pieces  for 
pistons  in,  192 


294 


INDEX 


Loam  moulding,  use  of  flasks  in, 

195,  196 

pipe  cores,  vertical,  149 
piston  core  materials,  193 
special  pipes  in,  259 
working  from  a  drawing  in, 

182 

Longitudinal     section     of     branch 
stucco  pattern,  254 

MALLEABLE  cast,-  melting,  231 

iron,  annealing,  232 
Manganese  in  pig  metal,  241 
Medium  core-sand,  137 

large     and     small    cores, 

core-sands   for,    136 
Melting  aluminium,  224 

and     pouring     speculum 

metal,  220 
points,  246 
Metal    for    agricultural     castings, 

76 

chills,  154 
mixing,  245 
Metals  and  their  relative  value  to 

each  other,  the  finer,  228 
Mixing   iron  for   jobbing  foundry, 

72 

Mottled  pig  irons,  244 
Mould  conditions  and  temperature 
for  pouring  metals  into  moulds, 
82 

Moulders'  shovels,  280 
Moulding  an  S  pipe,  89 

brass  castings,  208 
sand,    chemical   analysis 

of,  14 

taper  pipe,  96 
tub,  9 
Moulds,    pressure    on   bottom    of, 

58 
sides  of,  58 


OpEN-sand    castings,    feeding    and 
compressing,  69,  219 
feeding,  69,  70 


Oven,  construction  of  foundry,  269 
firing  the  foundry,  272 
materials     of     construction 

for  foundry,  270 
situation  of,  271 

PAINTING  of  patterns  for  foundry, 

26 
Pattern,    longitudinal    section    of 

branch  stucco,  254 
Pattern  making,  stucco  faucet,  257 
stucco,  for  special 
pipe    moulding, 
254 

principles   of,  246 
special  loam  pipe, 

259,  260 
pieces  for  pistons  in  loam 

moulding,  192 

Patterns,  condenser,  251,  252 
Petrol  engine  work, "jacket  cylinder 

cores  in,  133 
Phosphor  bronze,  215 
Phosphorus  in  pig  iron,  241 
Pig  iron  brands  and  their  composi- 
tion, 234 
graphite  in,  242 
manganese  in,  241 
phosphorus  in,  241 
remelting,  243 
silicon  in,  240 
sulphur  in,  241 
transverse      and     tensile 

tests  of,  245 
Pig  irons,  analysis  of  English  and 

Scotch  brands,  235—240 
Pipe,  core  boxes  for  bank,  249 

cores,  vertical  dry -sand,  150 

vertical  loam,  149 
factory  casings,  163 
moulding  an  5,  89 
taper,  96 

patterns,  bank,  248 
Pipes,  bell-mouthed,  97 
bend,  99 
bottle-neck,  96 
branch,  98 


INDEX 


295 


Pipes,  core  irons  and  cores  for,  100 
core    irons   for   green-sand, 

148 

green-sand  cores  for,  147 
pump,  108 

special  bends  (U  and  S),  88 
Pit  bogey  wheel  patterns,  250 
Pneumatic   tools   in   the   foundry, 

285 
Position  of  casting,  106 

brass  castings, 

211 

dry-sand  cylin- 
ders, 122 

Pouring  metal  into  moulds,  mould 
conditions  and  tempera- 
ture for,  82 
speculum  metal,  220 
Pressure   due    to   fluid    metal    in 

gates,  60 

on  bottom  of  moulds,  58 
on     floating     and     sub- 
merged bodies,  59 
on  sides  of  moulds,  58 
Pump  pipe  core  making,  105 
Pump  pipes,  103 


RAMMING  cylinder  moulds  in  dry- 
sand,  116 

Rams,  cotter  cores  cast  in,  85 

Remelting  pig  iron,  243 

Ringers,  282 

Riser  gates  and  flowers,  167 

Risers  on  highest  parts  of  moulds, 
39 

Risers,  open  or  shut,  40 


SAND,  black,  20 

chemical  analysis  of,  14 
coal-dust  for  facing,  19 
dry- sand  facing,  21 
for  large  medium  and  small 
cores,  136 


Sand,  for  small  cores,  138 

green- sand  facing — for  gear 

wheels,  19 

green-sand  facing  light,  16 
heavy  and  medium,  16 
milled,  18 
jacket  cores,  126 
medium  cores,  137 
physical  properties  of,  23 
suitable       for       aluminium 

moulding,  223 
Sandless  castings,  156 
Shovels,  moulders',  280 
Shrinkage  and  gates,  165 

diagonal  bars  and,  48 
loam  moulding  and,  55 
or  draw  in  brass    cast- 
ings, 210 
vertical,  56 
volume  changes  due  to, 

45 
warping     and     twisting 

due  to,  46 
Shrinkholes,  30 
Silicon  in  pig  iron,  240 
Site  for  foundry,  2 
Snap  flask  moulding,  115 
Speculum  metal,  217 

"  draw"  in,  218 
m  e  1 1  i  11  g    and 

pcuring,  220 
treatment    of 

castings,  219 
Spur  wheels,  increasing  breadth  or 

depth  of  capped,  267 
Spur  wheels,  increasing  breadth  or 

depth  of  non-capped,  264 
Spur  wheels,  reducing  breadth    or 

depth  of  capped,  266 
Spur  wheels,  reducing  bread  oh  or 

depth  of  non-capped,  263 
Steam  cylinder  jacket  cores,  126 
Steel  ingots,  feeding  of,  70 
mixture  castings,  77 
Stools,  284 

Stucco  faucet  pattern  making,  257 
mixing,  258 


296 


INDEX 


Stucco  pattern,    longitudinal   sec-      VENTING  cylinders  in  dry-sand,  116 


tion  of  branch,  254 
pattern-making  for  special 

pipe  moulding,  254 
Sulphur  in  pig  iron,  241 

TANK  plate  design,  49 
Taper  pipe  moulding.  96 
Tub  moulding,  9 


of  top  parts,  37 
Vertical  dry-sand  pipe  cores,  150 
loam  pipe  cores,  149 
shrinkage,  56 


WASTAGE  in  melting  brass,  207 
White  pig  iron,  243 


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BURGH,  N.  P.     Modern  Marine  Engineering,  Applied  to 

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BURT,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass,  and  Surveyor's 

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10  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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CARTER,  E.  T.  Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Elec- 
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CATHCART,   WM.   L.,   Prof.     Machine   Design.     Part   I. 

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CHARPENTIER,    P.     Timber.    A    Comprehensive    Study 

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CHAUVENET,    W.,    Prof.     New    Method    of    Correcting 

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CHILD,    C.    T.    The   How   and   Why   of   Electricity.    A 

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CHRISTIE,  W.  W.  Furnace  Draft :  its  Production  by  Me- 
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tigations. Illustrated  with  numerous  diagrams.  1012  pages.  8vo, 
cloth.  Sixth  Edition $5.00 

Fuel:    its  Combustion  and  Economy;  consisting  of 

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Williams,  and  the  Economy  of  Fuel,  by  T.  S.  Prideaux.  With 
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Tramways :  Their  Construction  and  Working.  Em- 
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CLARK,  J.  M.  New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turn- 
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The  A  1   Universal  Commercial  Electric  Telegraphic 

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12  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

CLEEMANN,   T.   M.     The   Railroad   Engineer's   Practice. 

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Construction.  Fourth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

CLEVENGER,  S.  R.  A  Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Gov- 
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United  States  Surveyors  in  the  field.  16mo,  morocco $2 . 50 

CLOUTH,   F.     Rubber,   Gutta-Percha,   and  Balata.     First 

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Author.  With  numerous  figures,  tables,  diagrams,  and  folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

COFFIN,  J.  H.  C.,  Prof.  Navigation  and  Nautical  Astron- 
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Edition.  Revised  by  Commander  Charles  Belknap.  52  woodcut 
illustrations.  12mo,  cloth net,  $3 . 50 

COLE,  R.  S.,  M.A.    A  Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics. 

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COLLINS,  J.  E.  The  Private  Book  of  Useful  Alloys  and 
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COLLINS,  T.  B.     The  Steam  Turbine,  or  the  New  Engine. 

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COREY,  H.  T.   Water-supply  Engineering.   Fully  illustrated. 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  13 

COWELL,  W.  B.  Pure  Air,  Ozone  and  Water.  A  Prac- 
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Paint,  Glue  and  other  Industries.  With  tables  and  figures. 
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CROCKER,  F.  B.,  Prof.     Electric   Lighting.     A  Practical 

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CROSSKEY,  L.  R.     Elementary  Perspective:   Arranged  to 

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DAVIES,    E.    H.     Machinery    for    Metalliferous    Mines. 

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DAVIES,  D.  C.     A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and 

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son.  8vo,  cloth net,  $5.00 

Mining  Machinery In  Press. 

DAVISON,  G.  C.,  Lieut.    Water-tube  Boilers In  Press. 


14  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

DAY,  C.     The  Indicator  and  its  Diagrams.     With  Chap 

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Constants  compiled  by  W.  H.  Fowler.  12mo,  cloth.  125  illus- 
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Edited  from  the  text  of  numerous  experts.  Translated  from  the 
original  by  S.  I.  King,  F.C.S.  With  figures.  4to,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $5.00 

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DEN1TY,  G.  A.     Deep-level  Mines  of  the  Rand,  and  their 

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DERR,    W.    L.     Block    Signal    Operation.     A    Practical 

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DIBDIN,  W.  J.     Public  Lighting  by  Gas  and  Electricity. 

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cloth,  illustrated net,  $8 . 00 

—^-Purification    of   Sewage    and   Water>^  With    tables, 

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DIETERICH,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum 

Resins:  their  Chemistry  and  Pkarmacognosis.  For  the  use  of 
the  Scientific  and  Technical  Research  Chemist.  Witk  a  Bibliog- 
raphy. Translated  from  the  German,  by  Chas.  Salter.  8vo. 
eloth* net,  $3 .00 

DIXON,   ]).   B.     The   Machinist's   and   Steam   Engineer's 

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tion in  Screw-cutting,  Valve  and  Link  Motion,  etc.  Third  Edition. 
16mo,  full  morocco,  pocket  form $1 . 25 

BOBLE,  W.  A.  Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific 
Coast .  In  Press. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  15 

DODD,  GEO.  Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  Ma- 
chinery, and  the  Industrial  Arts.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

DORR,  B.  F.  The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table- 
book.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  greatly  extended. 
With  a  second  appendix  up  to  date.  16mo,  morocco  flaps.  .  $2 . 00 

DRAPER,    C.    H.     An   Elementary   Text-book    of   Light, 

Heat  and  Sound,  with  Numerous  Examples.  Fourth  Edition. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 00 

Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics.     With 

many  illustrations  and  numerical  examples.     12mo,  cloth.  . .   $1 . 50 

DYSON,   S.   S.     Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials.     A 

Concise  Handbook  for  Manufacturers,  Merchants,  and  Users  of 
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Paper-making  Materials,  with  Chapters  on  Water  Analysis  and 
the  Testing  of  Trade  Effluents.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrations,  177 
pages net,  $5. 00 

ECCLES,  R.  G.  (Dr.),  and  DUCKWALL,  E.  W.     Food  Pre- 

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versus  the  Theoretical  Side  of  the  Pure  Food  Problem.  8vo, 

paper $0 .  5Q 

Cloth 1 .00 

EDDY,    H.    T.,    Prof.     Researches   in    Graphical    Statics. 

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Method  in  Graphical  Statics,  and  the  Theory  of  Internal  Stress 
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Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads.  Treated 

graphicaly.     Illustrated.     8vo,  cloth $1 . 50 

* 

EISSLER,  M.    The  Metallurgy  of  Gold.   A  Practical  Treatise 

on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-bearing  Ores,  including 
the  Processes  of  Concentration  and  Chlorination,  and  the  Assay- 
ing, Mefcing  and  Refining  of  Gold.  Fifth  Edition,  revised  and 
greatly  enlarged.  Over  300  illustrations  and  numerous  folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth $7.50 

The  Hydro-Metallurgy  of  Copper.     Being  an  Account 

of  processes  adopted  in  the  Hydro-metallurgical  Treatment  of 
Cupriferous  Ores,  including  the  Manufacture  of  Copper  Vitriol. 
With  chapters  on  the  sources  of  supply  of  Copper  and  the  Roasting 
of  Copper  Ores.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures.  8vo, 
cl«th,  illustrated net,  $4.50 


16  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

EISSLER,   M.      The  Metallurgy  of    Silver.      A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting  and  Lixiviation  of  Silver 
Ores,  including  the  Assaying,  Melting  and  Refining  of  Silver 
Bullion.  124  illustrations.  Second  Edition,  enlarged.  8vc,  cloth. 

$4.00 

The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead.     A  Practical 

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Lead  Bullion.  Including  Reports  on  Various  Smelting  Establish- 
ments and  Descriptions  of  Modern  Smelting  Furnaces  and  Plants 
in  Europe  and  America.  With  183  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth, 

$5.00 

Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold  and  its 

Practical  Application  on  the  Witwatersrand  Gold  Fields  in  South 
Africa.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrations  and 
folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth $3.00 

A  Handbook  on  Modern  Explosives.  Being  a  Prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Use  of  Dynamite,  Gun- 
cotton,  Nitroglycerine,  and  other  Explosive  Compounds,  in- 
cluding the  manufacture  of  Collodion-cotton,  with  chapters  on 
Explosives  in  Practical  Application.  Second  Edition,  enlarged 
with  150  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $5 . 00 

ELIOT,    C.   W.,    and   STORER,    F.   H.     A   Compendious. 

Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Revised  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  authors,  by  Prof.  William  R.  Nichols.  Illus- 
trated. Twentieth  Edition,  newly  revised  by  Prof.  W.  B.  Lindsay* 
12mo,  cloth net,  $1 . 25 

ELLIOT,  G.  H.,  Maj.  European  Light-house  Systems. 
Being  a  Report  of  a  Tour  of  Inspection  made  in  1873.  51  en- 
gravings  and  21  woodcuts.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

ERFURT,  J.     Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.    A  Practical  Treatise 

for  the  use  of  paper-makers,  paper-stainers,  students  and  others, 
With  illustrations  and  157  patterns  of  paper  dyed  in  the  pulp, 
with  formulas  for  each.  Translated  into  English  and  edited, 
with  additions,  by  Julius  Hiibner,  F.C.S.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $7.50 

EVERETT,    J.    D.      Elementary    Text-book    of    Physics. 

Illustrated.     Seventh  Edition.     12mo,  cloth $1 ,50 

EWING,   A.   J.,   Prof.     The   Magnetic  Induction  in   Iron 

and  other  metals.  Third  Edition,  revised.  159  illustrations 
8vo,  cloth $4.00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  17 

FAIRIE,  J.,  F.G.S.  Notes  on  Lead  Ores:  Their  Distribu- 
tion and  Properties.  12mo,  cloth $1 .00 

• Notes  on  Pottery  Clays:  The  Distribution,  Properties, 

Uses  and  Analysis  of  Ball  Clays,  China  Clays  and  China  Stone. 
With  tables  and  formulae.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

FANNING,  J.  T.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  and 

Water-supply  Engineering.  Relating  to  the  Hydrology,  Hydro- 
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HALL,   C.   H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles. 

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HAMMER,  W.  J.  Radium,  and  Other  Radio-active  Sub- 
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HANCOCK,  H.  Text-book  of  Mechanics  and  Hydro- 
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HARDY,    E.     Elementary   Principles    of   Graphic    Statics. 

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HAWKE,  W.  H.     The  Premier  Cipher  Telegraphic  Code, 

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HAWKESWORTH,    J.     Graphical    Handbook    for    Rein- 

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24  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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HEAVISIDE,  0.  Electromagnetic  Theory.  8vo,  cloth. 
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HECK,  R.  C.  H.     Steam-Engine  and  Other  Steam  Motors. 

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HEERMANN,   P.     Dyers*   Materials.    An   Introduction   to 

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HERMANN,   F.     Painting    on    Glass   and   Porcelain    and 

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HERRMANN,    G.     The    Graphical   Statics   of  Mechanism. 

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HERZFELD,  J.,  Dr.     The  Technical  Testing  of  Yarns  and 

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HEWSON,    W.     Principles    and    Practice    of    Embanking 

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HOBBS,  W.  R.  P.  The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measure- 
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HOFF,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas.     A 

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HOFF,  WM.  B.,  Com.,  U.S.N.     The  Avoidance  of  Collisions 

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HOLMES,  A.  B.     The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained. 

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26  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

HORNER,  J.  Engineers'  Turning,  in  Principle  and  Prac- 
tice. A  Handbook  for  Working  Engineers,  Technical  Students, 
and  Amateurs.  With  488  figures  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $3 . 50 

HOUSTON,  E.  J.,  and  KENNELLY,  A.  E.     Algebra  Made 

Easy.  Being  a  clear  explanation  of  the  Mathematical  Formulae 
found  in  Prof.  Thompson's  "Dynamo-electric  Machinery  and 
Polyphase  Electric  Currents."  With  figures  and  examples.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated —  .75 

The  Interpretation  of  Mathematical  Formulae.     With 

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HOWARD,  C.  R.     Earthwork  Mensuration  on  the  Basis 

of  the  Prismoidal  Formulse.  Containing  Simple  and  Labor-saving 
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Areas.  Illustrated  by  Examples  and  accompanied  by  Plain 
Rules  for  Practical  Use.  Illustrated.  8vo,  cloth $1 . 50 

HOWORTH,    J.     Art   of   Repairing   and   Riveting   Glass, 

China  and  Earthenware.  Second  Edition.  8vo,  pamphlet,  illus- 
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HUBBARD,  E.  The  Utilization  of  Wood-waste.  A  Com- 
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Wood  Refuse,  especially  Sawdust,  Exhausted  Dye  Woods  and 
Tan  as  Fuel,  as  a  Source  of  Chemical  Products  for  Artificial  Wood 
Compositions,  Explosives,  Manures,  and  many  other  Technical 
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and  enlarged  edition.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  192  pages.  .  net,  $2 . 50 

HUMBER,  W.,  C.E.     A  Handy  Book  for  the  Calculation 

of  Strains  in  Girders,  and  Similar  Structures,  and  their  Strength; 
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ous details  for  practical  application,  etc.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo, 
cloth $2.50 

HUMPHREYS,  A.  C.   (Stevens  Institute).     Lecture  Notes 

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HURST,  G.  H.,  F.C.S.     Color.    A  Handbook  of  the  Theory 

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Dyer  and  Calico  Printer,  and  Others.  Illustrated  with  10  colored 
plates  and  72  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth net,  $2 . 50 

Dictionary   of   Chemicals    and   Raw   Products    Used 

in  the  Manufacture  of  Paints,  Colors,  Varnishes  and  Allied  Prep- 
arations. 8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  27 

HURST,  G.H.,  F.C.S.     Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases : 

Their  Origin,  Preparation,  Properties,  Uses  and  Analysis.  313 
pages,  with  65  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

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Textile  Soaps  and  Oils :  A  Handbook  on  the  Prepara- 
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illustrations.  8vo,  cloth net,  $2.50 

HUTCHINSON,  R.  W.,  Jr.     Long  Distance  Electric  Power 

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bution. 12mo,  cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

and  IHLSENG,  M.  C.     Electricity  in  Mining;  being  a 

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tion, and  Maintenance  of  Electrical  Mining  Machinery.  12mo, 
cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

W.  B.     Patents   and   How   to  Make   Money   out   of 

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BUTTON,  W.  S.     Steam-boiler  Construction.     A  Practical 

Handbook  for  Engineers,  Boiler-makers  and  Steam-users.  Con- 
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Practical  Engineer's  Handbook,  comprising  a  Treatise 

on  Modern  Engines  and  Boilers,  Marine,  Locomotive  and  Station- 
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upwards  of  570  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth $7 . 00 

The  Works'  Manager's  Handbook   of  Modern  Rules, 

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cloth $6 .00 

S^ 

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28  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

INNES,    C.    H.     Problems   in    Machine    Design.     For   the 

use  of  Students,  Draughtsmen  and  others.  Second  Edition,  12mo, 
cloth net,  $2 . 00 

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ISHERWOOD,  B.  F.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam 

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JAMIESON,  A.,  C.E.  A  Text-book  on  Steam  and  Steam- 
engines.  Specially'. arranged  for  the  use  of  Science  and  Art,  City 
and  Guilds  of  London  Institute,  and  other  Engineering  Students. 
Thirteenth  Edition.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth $3 . 00 

—  Elementary  Manual  en  Steam  and  the  Steam-engine. 

Specially  arranged  for  the  use  of  First-year  Science  and  Art,  City 
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JANNETTAZ,  E.     A  Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks : 

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JEHL,  F.,  Mem.  A.I.E.E.      The  Manufacture  of  Carbons 

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JENNISON,   F.   H.     The   Manufacture   of  Lake  Pigments 

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the  different  processes  of  production.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

JEPSON,  G.  Cams,  and  the  Principles  of  their  Construc- 
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cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

JOCKIN,  WM.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith. 

Prepared  for  the  use  of  Jewelers,  Founders,  Merchants,  etc., 
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With  numerous  examples.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 25 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  29 

JOHNSON,  W.  McA.    "The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel."  In  Press. 

JOHNSTON,  J.  F.  W.,  Prof.,  and  CAMERON,  Sir  Chas. 

Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Geology.  Seventeenth 
Edition.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 60 

JONES,    H.     C.       Outlines    of    Electrochemistry.      With 

tables  and  diagrams.     4to,  cloth,  illustrated $1 .50 

-  Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity.     i2mo, 

doth net,  $2.00 

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JOYNSON,    F.    H.     The    Metals    Used    in     Construction. 

Iron,  Steel,  Bessemer  Metal,  etc.     Illustrated.     12mo,  cloth. . .    .75 

Designing    and    Construction    of    Machine     Gearing. 

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JUPTNER,  H.   F.  V.     Siderology:    The  Science  of  Iron. 

(The  Constitution  of  Iron  Alloys  and  Iron.)  Translated  from 
the  German.  8vo,  cloth,  345  pages,  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

KANSAS    CITY    BRIDGE,    THE.     With    an    Account    of 

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Methods  used  for  Founding  in  that  River,  by  O.  Chanute,  Chief 
Engineer,  and  George  Morison,  Assistant  Engineer.  Illustrated 
with  5  lithographic  views  and  12  plates  of  plans.  4to,  cloth.  $6 . 00 

KAPP,    G.,    C.E.     Electric   Transmission    of   Energy   and 

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• Dynamos,  Motors,  Alternators  and  Rotary  Con- 
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H.  Simmons,  A.M.I.E.E.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  figures. 
8vo,  cloth,  507  pages $4 . 00 

KEIM,    A.   W.      Prevention    of    Dampness    in    Buildings. 

With  Remarks  on  the  Causes,  Nature  and  Effects  of  Saline  Efflo- 
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second  revised,  German  edition.  With  colored  plates  and  dia- 
grams. 8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  115  pages net,  $2.00 

KELSEY,    W.    R.      Continuous-current      Dynamos    and 

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30  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

KEMP,  J.  F.,  A.B.,  E.M.  (Columbia  Univ.).    A  Handbook 

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the  names  of  rocks  and  of  other  lithological  terms.  Third  Edition, 
revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $1 . 50 

KEMPE,   H.   R.     The   Electrical   Engineer's   Pocket-book 

of  Modern  Rules,  Formulae,  Tables  and  Data.  Illustrated. 
32mo,  morocco,  gilt $1 . 75 

KENNEDY,  R.     Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators. 

A  Practical  Work  on  Prime  Movers  and  the  Transmission  of 
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$15.00 
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Electrical    Installations    of    Electric    Light,   Power, 

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Vol.  II.  Instruments,  Transformers,  Installation  Wir- 
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KENNELLY,  A.  E.  Theoretical  Elements  of  Electro- 
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KINGDON,  J.   A.     Applied  Magnetism.     An  Introduction 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  31 

KINZBRUNNER,  C.     Alternate  Current  Windings;    Their 

Theory  and  Construction.  A  Handbook  for  Students,  Designers, 
and  all  Practical  Men.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .50 

Continuous  Current  Armatures ;   Their  Winding  and 

Construction.  A  Handbook  for  Students,  Designers,  and  all 
Practical  Men.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .50 

KIRKALDY,    W.    G.     Illustrations    of    David    Kirkaldy's 

System  of  Mechanical  Testing,  as  Originated  and  Carried  on  by 
him  during  a  Quarter  of  a  Century.  Comprising  a  Large  Selec- 
tion of  Tabulated  Results,  showing  the  Strength  and  other  Proper- 
ties of  Materials  used  in  Construction,  with  Explanatory  Text 
and  Historical  Sketch.  Numerous  engravings  and  25  lithographed 
plates.  4to,  cloth $10 .00 

KIRKBRIDE,  J.     Engraving  for  Illustration:    Historical 

and  Practical  Notes,  with  illustrations  and  2  plates  by  ink 
photo  process.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

KIRKWOOD,   J.   P.     Report   on   the   Filtration   of  River 

Waters  for  the  Supply  of  Cities,  as  practised  in  Europe,  made 
to  the  Board  of  Water  Commissioners  of  the  City  of  St.  Louis. 
Illustrated  by  30  double-page  engravings.  4to,  cloth  ....  $7.50 

KLEIN,   J.   F.      Design   of    a   High-speed   Steam-engine. 

With  notes,  diagrams,  formulas  and  tables.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

KLEINHANS,  F.  B.  Boiler  Construction.  A  Practical  ex- 
planation of  the  best  modern  methods  of  Boiler  Construction, 
from  the  laying  out  of  sheets  to  the  completed  Boiler.  With 
diagrams  and  full-page  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. .  $3 . 00 

KNIGHT,  A.  M.,  Lieut.-Com.  U.S.N.  Modern  Seaman- 
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cloth,  illustrated.     Second  Edition,  revised net,  $6.00 

Half  morocco $7.50 

KNOTT,  C.  G.,  and  MACKAY,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics. 

With  numerous  examples,  figures  and  diagrams.  New  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 

KOLLER,    T.     The    Utilization    of    Waste    Products.     A 

Treatise  on  the  Rational  Utilization,  Recovery  and  Treatment 
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second  revised  edition.  With  numerous  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated.  .  net,  $3 . 50 


32  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

KOLLER,  T.    Cosmetics.   A  Handbook  of  the  Manufacture, 

Employment  and  Testing  of  all  Cosmetic  Materials  and  Cosmetic 
Specialties.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Chas.  Salter.  8vo. 
cloth net,  $2 . 50 

KRAUCH,    C.,    Dr.     Testing    of    Chemical    Reagents    for 

Purity.  Authorized  translation  of  the  Third  Edition,  by  J.  A. 
Williamson  and  L.  W.  Dupre.  With  additions  and  emendations 
by  the  author.  8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

LAMBERT,   T.     Lead,  and  its  Compounds.    With  tables, 

diagrams  and  folding  plates.     8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 50 

Bone    Products     and     Manures.      An     Account     of 

the  most  recent  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  Fat,  Glue, 
Ajiimal  Charcoal,  Size,  Gelatine  and  Manures.  With  plans  and 
diagrams.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 00 

LAMBORN,  L.  L.     Cottonseed  Products :  A  Manual  of  the 

Treatment  of  Cottonseed  for  its  Products  and  Their  Utilization 
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folding  map.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 .00 

Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin.     A   practical 

manual  of  modern  methods  of  utilization  of  Fats  and  Oils  in  the 
manufacture  of  Soaps  and  Candles,  and  the  recovery  of  Glycerin. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $7 . 50 

LAMPRECHT,    R.     Recovery   Work    after   Pit    Fires.     A 

description  of  the  principal  methods  pursued,  especially  in  fiery 
mines,  and  of  the  various  appliances  employed,  such  as  respira- 
tory and  rescue  apparatus,  dams,  etc.  With  folding  plates  and 
diagrams.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Charles  Salter.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $4.00 

LARRABEE,  C.  S.  Cipher  and  Secret  Letter  and  Tele- 
graphic Code,  with  Hog's  Improvements.  The  most  perfect 
Secret  Code  ever  invented  or  discovered.  Impossible  to  read 
without  the  key.  18mo,  cloth 60 

LASSAR-COHN,  Dr.  An  Introduction  to  Modern  Scien- 
tific Chemistry,  in  the  form  of  popular  lectures  suited  to  University 
Extension  Students  and  general  readers.  Translated  from  the 
author's  corrected  proofs  for  the  second  German  edition,  by 
M.  M.  Pattison  Muir,  M.A.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  33 

LATTA,  M.  N.     Gas  Engineering  Practice.     With  figures, 

diagrams  and  tables.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated in  Press. 

LEASK,  A.  R.     Breakdowns  at  Sea  and  How  to  Repair 

Them.     With  89  illustrations.     Second  Edition.     8vo,  cloth.  $2 . 00 

Triple  and  Quadruple  Expansion  Engines  and  Boilers 

and  their  Management.  With  59  illustrations.  Third  Edition, 
revised.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

Refrigerating  Machinery:  Its  Principles  and  Man- 
agement. With  64  illustrations.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 

LECKY,   S.    T.   S.     "Wrinkles"   in   Practical   Navigation. 

With  130  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth.  Fourteenth  Edition,  revised 
and  enlarged $8 . 00 

LEFEVRE,  L.     Architectural  Pottery:  Bricks,  Tiles,  Pipes, 

Enameled  Terra-Cottas,  Ordinary  and  Incrusted  Quarries,  Stone- 
ware Mosaics,  Faiences  and  Architectural  Stoneware.  With 
tables,  plates  and  950  cuts  and  illustrations.  With  a  preface  by 
M.  J.-C.  Formige.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  K.  H.  Bird, 
M.A.,  and  W.  Moore  Binns.  4to,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $7. 50 

LEHNER,  S.  Ink  Manufacture :  including  Writing,  Copy- 
ing, Lithographic,  Marking,  Stamping  and  Laundry  Inks.  Trans- 
lated from  the  fifth  German  edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and 
Herbert  Robson,  B.Sc.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2. 50 

LEMSTROM,  Dr.  Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticul- 
ture. Illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

LEVY,  C.  L.  Electric-light  Primer.  A  simple  and  com- 
prehensive digest  of  all  the  most  important  facts  connected  with 
the  running  of  the  dynamo,  and  electric  lights,  with  precautions 
for  safety.  For  the  use  of  persons  whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after 
the  plant.  8vo,  paper 50 

LIVERMORE,  V.  P.,  and  WILLIAMS,  J.     How  to  Become 

a  Competent  Motorman.  Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Proper  Method  of  Operating  a  Street  Railway  Motor  Car;  also 
giving  details  how  to  overcome  certain  defects.  16mo,  cloth, 
illustrated,  132  pages $1 .00 


34  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

LOBBEN,  P.,  M.E.  Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Hand- 
book, containing  Tables,  Rules,  and  Formulas,  with  numerous 
examples,  explaining  the  principles  of  mathematics  and  mechanics, 
as  applied  to  the  mechanical  trades.  Intended  as  a  reference  book 
for  all  interested  in  Mechanical  work.  Illustrated  with  many 
cuts  and  diagrams.  Svo,  cloth $2 . 50 

LOCKE,  A.   G.   and  C.   G.     A  Practical    Treatise  on    the 

Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid.  With  77  constructive  plates, 
drawn  to  scale  measurements,  and  other  illustrations.  Royal 
Svo,  cloth.  $10  .'00 

LOCKERT,  L.     Petroleum  Motor-cars.     i2mo,  cloth,  $1.50 

LCCKWOOD,  T.  D.  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro- 
telegraphy.  A  Practical  Guide  for  Students,  Operators,  and 
Inspectors.  Svo,  cloth.  Third  Edition $2. 50 

Electrical  Measurement  and  the   Galvanometer:    its 

Construction  and  Uses.  Second  Edition.  32  illustrations.  12mo, 
cloth $1 . 50 

LODGE,  0.  J.  Elementary  Mechanics,  including  Hydro- 
statics and  Pneumatics.  Revised  Edition.  12mo,  cloth  ...  $1 .  50 

Signalling  Across    Space,   Without    Wires :     being   a 

description  of  the  work  of  Hertz  and  his  successors.  With  numer- 
ous diagrams  and  half-tone  cuts,  and  additional  remarks  con- 
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LORD,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics.     A  Valuable 

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cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 50 

LORING,   A.   E.      A   Handbook    of   the    Electro-magnetic 

Telegraph.     16mo,  cloth,  boards.     New  and  enlarged  edition.  .    .50 

LUCE,  S.  B.  (Com.,  U.  S.  N.).  Text-book  of  Seamanship. 
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For  the  use  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Academy.  Revised  and  enlarged 
edition,  by  Lieut.  Wm.  S.  Benson.  Svo,  cloth,  illustrated. $10. 00 

LUCKE,   C.   E.     Gas  Engine   Design.     With   figures  and 

diagrams.     Second  Edition,  revised.     Svo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $3 . 00 

Power,   Cost  and  Plant   Designs   and   Construction. 

In  Press. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  35 

LUCKE,  C.  E.     Power  Plant  Papers.     Form  I.     The  Steam 

Power  Plant.     Pamphlet  (8  X 13) net,  $1 . 50 

LUNGE,   G.,   Ph.D.      Coal-tar  and  Ammonia:    being  the 

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36  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  37 

McNEILL,    B.     McNeilPs    Code.     Arranged    to    meet    the 

requirements  of  Mining,  Metallurgical  and  Civil  Engineers,  Direc- 
tors of  Mining,  Smelting  and  other  Companies,  Bankers,  Stock 
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McPHERSON,    J.    A.,    A.    M.    Inst.    C.    E.     Waterworks 

Distribution.  A  practical  guide  to  the  laying  out  of  systems  of 
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With  tables,  folding  plates  and  numerous  full-page  diagrams 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $2 . 50 

MERCK,  E.     Chemical  Reagents:  Their  Purity  and  Tests. 

In  Press. 

MERRITT,  WM.  H.     Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver. 

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half-tone  cuts,  figures  and  tables.  16mo,  limp  leather,  illus- 
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METAL  TURNING.  By  a  Foreman  Pattern-maker.  Illus- 
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MICHELL,  S.  Mine  Drainage:  being  a  Complete  Prac- 
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tables.  Second  Edition,  rewritten  and  enlarged.  Thick  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated $10 . 00 

MIERZINSKI,  S.,  Dr.  Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.  Trans- 
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With  diagrams  and  figures.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated.  .  .  net,  $2.50 

MILLER,  E.  H.  (Columbia  Univ.).     ^usmtitative  Analysis 

for  Mining  Engineers.    8vo,  cloth net,  $1 . 50 

MINIFIE,    W.     Mechanical    Drawing.     A    Text-book    of 

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plained; the  Practical  Problems  are  arranged  from  the  most 
simple  to  the  more  complex,  and  in  their  description  technicalities 
are  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  With  illustrations  for  drawing 
Plans,  Sections,  and  Elevations  of  Railways  and  Machinery;  an 
Introduction  to  Isometrical  Drawing,  and  an  Essay  on  Linear 
Perspective  and  Shadows.  Illustrated  with  over  200  diagrams 
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38  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

MINIFIE,  W-     Geometrical  Drawing.      Abridged  from  the 

octavo  edition,  for  the  use  of  schools.  Illustrated  with  48  steel 
plates.  Ninth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

MODERN   METEOROLOGY.      A   Series    of   Six   Lectures, 

delivered  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meteorological  Society  in 
1870.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

MOORE,  E.  C.  S.  Few  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solu- 
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open  channels,  pipes,  sewers  and  conduits.  In  two  parts.  Part  I, 
arranged  for  1080  inclinations  from  1  over  1  to  1  over  21,120  for 
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values  of  (n).  With  large  folding  diagram.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated  net,  $5.00 

MOREING,  C.  A.,  and  NEAL,  T.     New  General  and  Mining 

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use  of  mining  companies,  mining  engineers,  stock  brokers,  financial 
agents,  and  trust  and  finance  companies.  Eighth  Edition.  8vo, 
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MOSES,  A.  J.  The  Characters  of  Crystals.  An  Intro- 
duction to  Physical  Crystallography,  containing  321  illustrations 
and  diagrams.  8vo net,  $2 . 00 

and    PARSONS,    C.    L.     Elements    of    Mineralogy, 

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net,  $2.50 

MOSS,  S.  A.     Elements  of  Gas  Engine  Design.    Reprint 

of  a  Set  of  Notes  accompanying  a  Course  of  Lectures  delivered 
at  Cornell  University  in  1902.  16mo,  cloth,,  illustrated.  (Van 
Nostrand's  Science  Series) $0 . 50 

MOSS,  S.  A.     The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.     (Van 

Nostrand's  Science  Series.)     16mo,  cloth,  illustrated $0.50 

MULLIN,  J.  P.,  M.E.  Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern- 
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Work:  embracing  the  Moulding  of  Pulleys,  Spur  Gears,  Worm 
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for  every-day  use  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern-shop  and  Foundry. 
12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2 . 50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  39 

MUNRO,  J.,  C.E.,  and  JAMIESON,  A.,  C.E.  A  Pocket- 
book  of  Electrical  Rules  and  Tables  for  the  use  of  Electricians 
and  Engineers.  Fifteenth  Edition,  remsed  and  enlarged.  With 
numerous  diagrams.  Pocket  size.  Leather $2 . 50 

MURPHY,  J.  G.,  M.E.     Practical  Mining.     A  Field  Manual 

for  Mining  Engineers.  With  Hints  for  Investors  in  Mining 
Properties.  16mo,  cloth $1 . 00 

NAQUET,  A.     Legal  Chemistry.     A  Guide  to  the  Detection 

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and  Pharmaceutical  Substances,  Analysis  of  Ashes,  and  Exami- 
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Pharmacists  and  Experts.  Translated,  with  additions,  including 
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by  J.  P.  Battershall,  Ph.D.,  with  a  Preface  by  C.  F.  Chandler, 
Ph.D.,  M.D.,  LL.D.  12mo,  cloth $2.00 


NASMITH,    J.     The    Student's    Cotton    Spinning.     Third 

Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth,  622  pages,  250  illus- 
trations   $3 . 00 

NEUBURGER,    H.,    and   NOALHAT,    H.     Technology   of 

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plates.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  John  Geddes  Mclntosh. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $10 . 00 

NEW  ALL,  J.  W.     Plain  Practical  Directions  for  Drawing, 

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be  cut  in  a  Plain  Milling  Machine  or  Gear  Cutter  so  as  to  give 
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out  all  particulars  for  the  Workshop  without  making  any  Draw- 
ings. Including  a  Full  Set  of  Taoles  of  Reference.  Folding 
plates.  8vo,  cloth $1 . 50 

NEWLANDS,  J.     The  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  Assistant: 

being  a  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  the  Selection,  Preparation 
and  Strength  of  Materials,  and  the  Mechanical  Principles  of 
Framing,  with  their  application  in  Carpentry,  Joinery  and 
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Illustrated.  Folio,  half  morocco $15.00 


40  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

NIPHER,  F.  E.,  A.M.     Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements, 

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NOLL,  AUGUSTUS.     How  to  Wire  Buildings:    A  Manual 

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NUGENT,   E.     Treatise   on   Optics;     or,   Light   and   Sight 

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cloth $1.50 

^  \  O'CONNOR,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocket-book.  Com- 
prising Tables,  Notes  and  Memoranda  relating  to  the  Manu- 
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of  Gas-works.  Second  Edition,  revised.  12mo,  full  leather,  gilt 
edges $3 . 50 

OLSEN,  J.  C.,  Prof.  Text-book  of  Quantitative  Chemical 
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With  numerous  figures  and  diagrams.  Second  Edition,  revised. 
8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 00 

OSBORN,  F.  C.  Tables  of  Moments  of  Inertia,  and  Squares 
of  Radii  of  Gyration;  supplemented  by  others  on  the  Ultimate 
and  Safe  Strength  of  Wrought-iron  Columns,  Safe  Strength  of 
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Stresses,  Reactions  and  Bending  Moments  in  Swing  Bridges. 
Fifth  Edition.  12mo,  leather net,  $3 . 00 

OUDIN,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems. 
With  many  diagrams  and  figures.  Third  Edition,  thoroughly 
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PALAZ,  A.,  Sc.D.     A  Treatise  on  Industrial  Photometry, 

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lation from  the  French  by  George  W.  Patterson,  Jr.  Second 
Edition,  revised.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $4.00 

PAMELY,  C.  Colliery  Manager's  Handbook.  A  Compre- 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  41 

PARR,  G.  D.  A.  Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instru- 
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PARRY,  E.  J.,  B.Sc.      The  Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils 

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the  more  important  of  the  published  facts  connected  with  the 
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preparation  and  analysis  of  Essential  Oils.  With  numerous  dia- 
grams and  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $5 . 00 

and  COSTE,  J.  H.      Chemistry  of  Pigments.     With 

tables  and  figures.     8vo,  cloth net,  $4 . 50 

PARRY,  L.  A.,  M.D.     The  Risks  and  Dangers  of  Various 

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and  workmen.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 00 

PARSHALL,    H.    F.,    and  HOBART,    H.    M.      Armature 

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and  PARRY,  E.     Electrical  Equipment  of  Tramways. 

In  Press. 

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jects. 8vo,  cloth net,  $3 .50 

PATERSON,   D.,   F.C.S.      The   Color   Printing   of   Carpet 

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figures,  tables,  and  colored  plate.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated .  net,  $3 . 00 

PATTEN,  J.  A  Plan  for  Increasing  the  Humidity  of 
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of  the  United  States  for  Power  and  other  Purposes.  A  paper 
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\ 


42  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

PATTON,     H.     B.      Lecture    Notes    on     Crystallography 

Revised  Edition,  largely  rewritten.  Prepared  for  use  of  the  stu- 
dents at  the  Colorado  School  of  Mines.  With  blank  pages  for 
note-taking.  8vo,  cloth net  $1 . 25 

PAULDING,  C.  P.  Practical  Laws  and  Data  on  the  Con- 
densation of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare  Pipes;  to  which  is  added 
a  translation  of  Peelet's  "Theory  and  Experiments  on  the  Trans- 
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Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage  Insula- 
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Every  Kind.  A  Manual  for  refrigerating  engineers.  With  tables 
and  diagrams.  12mo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .00 

PEIRCE,     B.       SyiUm     of     Analytic     Mechanics.       4to, 

cloth $10 . 00 

PERRINE,  F.  A.  C.,  A.M.,  D.Sc.      Conductors  for  Elec- 

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and  other  Uses.  With  numerous  diagrams  and  engravings.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated,  287  pages net,  $3 . 50 

PERRY,  J.      Applied  Mechanics.     A  Treatise  for  the  Use 

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graphical  exercises  illustrating  the  subject.  8vo,  cloth,  650 
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PHILLIPS,     J.       Engineering     Chemistry.      A     Practical 

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8vo,  cloth net,  $4.50 

Gold  Assaying.      A  Practical  Handbook  giving  the 

Modus  Operandi  for  the  Accurate  Assay  of  Auriferous  Ores  and 
Bullion,  and  the  Chemical  Tests  required  in  the  Processes  of 
Extraction  by  Amalgamation,  Cyanidation,  and  Chlorination. 
With  an  appendix  of  tables  and  statistics  and  numerous  diagrams 
and  engravings.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2 . 50 

PHIN,  J.     Seven  Follies  of  Science.     A  Popular  Account 

of  the  most  famous  scientific  impossibilities  and  the  attempts 
which  have  been  made  to  solve  them;  to  which  is  added  a  small 
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numerous  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 .25 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  43 

PICKWORTH,  C.  N.  The  Indicator  Handbook.  A  Prac- 
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Logarithms  for  Beginners.     8vo,  boards $0.50 

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with  Numerous  Rules  and  Practical  Illustrations,  exhibiting  the 
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Engineer — Civil,  Mechanical  and  Electrical.  Seventh  Edition. 
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Plane  Table,  The.  Its  Uses  in  Topographical  Survey- 
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PLATTNER'S    Manual    of    Qualitative    and    Quantitative 

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by  Henry  B.  Cornwall,  E.M.,  Ph.D.,  assisted  by  John  H.  Caswell, 
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PLYMPTON,   GEO.   W.,  Prof.      The  Aneroid  Barometer: 

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POPPLEWELL,  W.  C.     Elementary  Treatise  on  Heat  and 

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44  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

POPPLE  WELL,  W.  C.  Prevention  of  Smoke,  combined 
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PRAY,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator:    being 

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PREECE,  W.  H.     Electric  Lamps In  Press. 

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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  45 

PRESCOTT,  A.  B.,  Prof.     Outlines  of  Proximate  Organic 

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PULLEN,   W.   W.   F.      Application   of   Graphic  Methods 

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PYNCHON,  T.  R.,  Prof.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics, 

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46  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

RADFORD,  C.  S.,  Lieut.      Handbook  on  Naval  Gunnery. 

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RAM,  G.  S.  The  Incandescent  Lamp  and  its  Manufac- 
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RAMP,  H.  M.     Foundry  Practice In  Press. 

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RANDALL,    P.    M.     Quartz    Operator's   Handbook.     New 

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RANDAU,  P.     Enamels  and  Enamelling.    An  introduction 

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technical  and  artistic  purposes.  For  enamel-makers,  workers 
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German  Edition.  Translated  by  Charles  Salter.  With  figures, 
diagrams  and  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $4 . 00 

RANKINE,    W.    J.    M.     Applied   Mechanics.     Comprising 

the  Principles  of  Statics  and  Cinematics,  and  Theory  of  Struc- 
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Civil  Engineering.  Comprising  Engineering  Sur- 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  47 

RANKINE,  W.  J.  M.  Machinery  and  Millwork.  Compris- 
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Objects  of  Machines,  etc.  Illustrated  with  nearly  300  woodcuts. 
Seventh  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth. 

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The  Steam-engine   and  Other  Prime  Movers.     With 

diagram  of  the  Mechanical  Properties  of  Steam.  Folding  plates, 
numerous  tables  and  illustrations.  Fifteenth  Edition,  thor- 
oughly revised  by  W.  J.  Millar.  8vo,  cloth $5.00 

Useful   Rules  and  Tables  for  Engineers  and  Others. 

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and  BAMBER,  E.  F.,  C.E.     A  Mechanical  Text-book. 

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RAPHAEL,    F.    C.     Localization    of    Faults    in    Electric 

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RATEAU,  A.     Experimental  Researches  on  the  Flow  of 

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figures,  tables,  and  folding  plates.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

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RAUTENSTRAUCH,  Prof.  W.     Syllabus  of  Lectures  and 

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RAYMOND,  E.  B.  Alternating-current  Engineering  Prac- 
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RAYNER,  H.     Silk  Throwing   and  Waste  Silk  Spinning. 

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RECIPES    for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,   Oil,   Soap  and 

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cloth..  ..  $3.50 


48  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

RECIPES  FOR    FLINT   GLASS  MAKING.     Being  Leaves 

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Crystal,  Demi-crystal,  and  Colored  Glass  in  its  many  varieties. 
It  contains  the  recipes  for  cheap  metal  suited  to  pressing,  blowing, 
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the  Venetians  to  Hungry  Hill,  Stourbridge,  up  to  the  present 
time.  The  book  also  contains  remarks  as  to  the  result  of  the 
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REED'S   ENGINEERS'  HANDBOOK  to  the  Local  Marine 

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and  37  large  plates.  Seventeenth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
8vo,  cloth $5 . 00 

Key  to  the  Seventeenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers' 

Handbook  to  the  Board  of  Trade  Examination  for  First  and 
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questions  given  in  the  examination  papers.  By  W.  H.  Thorn. 
8vo,  cloth.  . $3.00 

REED.  Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers,  and  How  to 
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ment. 12mo,  cloth,  illustrated $2.00 

REINHARDT,  C.  W.  Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers, 
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REISER,  F.  Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel,  in  Theory 
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enlarged  edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson.  8vo, 
cloth,  120  pages $2.50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  49 

REISER,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods, 

and  their  Prevention.  Translated  from  the  second  German 
edition,  by  Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson.  8vo,  cloth, 
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RICE,  J.  M.,  and  JOHNSON,  W.  W.     On  a  New  Method 

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ence to  the  Newtonian  Conception  of  Rates  or  Velocities.  12mo, 
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RIPPER,  W.     A  Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing 

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net,  $6.00 

ROBERTSON,    L.    S.     Water-tube    Boilers.     Based    on    a 

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ROBINSON,   S.   W.     Practical   Treatise   on   the   Teeth   of 

Wheels,  with  the  theory  and  the  use  of  Robinson's  Odpntograph. 
Third  Edition,  revised,  with  additions.  16mo,  cloth,  illustrated. 
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ROEBLING,  J.  A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges. 

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ROLLINS,    W.     Notes    on   X-Light.     With    152    full-page 

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Ninth  Edition.  With  250  engravings.  8vo,  cloth $2.50 


50  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

ROSE,  J.,  M.E.    Key  to  Engines  and  Engine-running.     A 

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SAUNDERS,    C.    H.     Handbook    of    Practical    Mechanics 

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SAUNNIER,  C.     Watchmaker's  Handbook.     A  Workshop 

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SCHELLEN,  H.,  Dr.  Magneto-electric  and  Dynamo- 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  51 

SCHERER,    R.     Casein:    its   Preparation   and   Technical 

Utilization.  Translated  from  the  German.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
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SCHMALL,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytical  Geometry, 

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SCHMALL,  C.  N.,  and  SHACK,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane 

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SCHMEER,  LOUIS.     Flow  of  Water:  A   New  Theory  of 

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cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

SCHUMANN,  F.     A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation 

in  its  Practical  Application,  for  the  use  of  Engineers  and  Archi- 
tects. Embracing  a  Series  of  Tables  and  Formulae  for  Dimensions 
of  Heating,  Flow  and  Return  Pipes  for  Steam  and  Hot- water 
Boilers,  Flues,  etc.  12mo,  illustrated,  full  roan $1 .50 

SCHWEIZER,  V.  Distillation  of  Resins,  Resinate    Lakes 

and  Pigments;  Carbon  Pigments  and  Pigments  for  Typewriting 
Machines,  Manifolders,  etc.  A  description  of  the  proper  methods 
of  distilling  resin-oils,  the  manufacture  of  resinates,  resin-var- 
nishes, resin-pigments  and  enamel  paints,  the  preparation  of  all 
kinds  of  carbon  pigments,  and  printers'  ink,  lithographic  inks 
and  chalks,  and  also  inks  for  typewriters,  manifolders,  and 
rubber  stamps.  With  tables  and  68  figures  and  diagrams.  8vo, 
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SCIENCE  SERIES,  The  Van  Nostrand.      (Follows  end  of 

this  list.) 

SCRIBNER,  J.  M.  Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Com- 
panion. Comprising  United  States  Weights  and  Measures, 
Mensuration  of  Superfices  and  Solids,  Tables  of  Squares  and 
Cubes,  Square  and  Cube  Roots,  Circumference  and  Areas  of 
Circles,  the  Mechanical  Powers.  Centres  of  Gravity,  Gravitation 
of  Bodies,  Pendulums,  Specific  Gravity  of  Bodies,  Strength, 
Weight  and  Crush  of  Materials,  Water-wheels.  Hydrostatics, 
Hydraulics,  Statics,  Centres  of  Percussion  and  Gyration,  Friction 
Heat,  Tables  of  the  Weight  of  Metals,  Scantling,  etc.,  Steam 
and  Steam-engine,  Twenty-first  Edition,  revised.  16mo,  full 
morocco $1 . 50- 


52  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 


SEATON,  A.  E.     A  Manual  of  Marine  Engineering.     Com- 

prising the  Designing,  Construction  and  Working  of  Marine 
Machinery.  With  numerous  tables  and  illustrations  reduced  from 
Working  Drawings.  Fifteenth  Edition,  revised  throughout,  with 
an  additional  chapter  on  Water-tube  Boilers.  8vo,  cloth  .  $6  .  00 

-  and    ROUNTHWAITE,    H.    M.      A   Pocket-book    of 

Marine  Engineering  Rules  and  Tables.  For  the  use  of  Marine 
Engineers  and  Naval  Architects,  Designers,  Draughtsmen,  Super- 
intendents and  all  engaged  in  the  design  and  construction  of 
Marine  Machinery,  Naval  and  Mercantile.  Seventh  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  Pocket  size.  Leather,  with  diagrams.  $3.00 

SEIDELL,    A.     Handbook    of    Solubilities.     i2mo,  cloth. 

In  Press. 

SEVER,  G.  F.,  Prof.  Electrical  Engineering  Experi- 
ments and  Tests  on  Direct-current  Machinery.  With  diagrams 
and  figures.  8vo  pamphlet,  illustrated  ..............  net,  $1  .  00 

-  and  TOWNSEND,  F.     Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests 

in  Electrical  Engineering.  •  Second  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated ............................................  net,  $2  .  50 

SEWALL,   C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy.      With    diagrams 

and  engravings.  Second  Edition,  corrected.  8vo,  cloth,  illus- 
trated ............................................  net,  $2  .  00 

-  Lessons   in   Telegraphy.     For   use    as    a    text-book 

in  schools  and  colleges,  or  for  individual  students.  Illustrated. 
12mo,  cloth  ..........................................  $1.00 

SEWELL,    T.     Elements    of    Electrical    Engineering.      A 

First  Year's  Course  for  Students.  Second  Edition,  revised,  with 
additional  chapters  on  Alternating-current  Working  and  Ap- 
pendix of  Questions  and  Answers.  With  many  diagrams,  tables 
and  examples.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  432  pages  .......  net,  $3  .  00 

SEXTON,  A.  H.  Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials.  8vo, 
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Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering.    A  Hand- 

book  for   Engineering   Students.      With   tables,    diagrams    and 
illustrations.     12mo,  cloth,  illustrated  .........  t  ..........  $2  .  50 


SEYMOUR,  A.     Practical  Lithography.     With  figures  and 

engravings.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated  ..................  net,  $2  .  50 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  55 

SHAW,  S.     The  History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries,  and 

the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Manufacture  of  Pottery  and  Por- 
celain; with  references  to  genuine  specimens,  and  notices  of 
eminent  potters.  A  re-issue  of  the  original  work  published  in 
1829.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 . 00 

Chemistry    of    the    Several    Natural    and    Artificial 

Heterogeneous  Compounds  used  in  Manufacturing  Porcelain,. 
Glass  and  Pottery.  Re-issued  in  its  original  form,  published  in 
1837.  8vo,  cloth net,  $5 .00 

SHELDON,  S.,  Ph.D.,  and  MASON,  H.,  B.S.  Dynamo- 
electric  Machinery:  its  Construction,  Design  and  Operation, 
Direct-current  Machines.  Fifth  Edition,  revised.  8vo,  cloth,  il- 
lustrated  net,  $2 . 50 

Alternating-current     Machines:     being     the     second 

volume  of  the  author's  "Dynamo-electric  Machinery:  its  Construc- 
tion, Design  and  Operation."  With  many  diagrams  and  figures. 
(Binding  uniform  with  volume  I.)  Fourth  Edition.  8vo,  cloth r 
illustrated. net,  $2. 10 

SHIELDS,    J.    E.     Notes    on    Engineering    Construction. 

Embracing  Discussions  of  the  Principles  involved,  and  Descrip- 
tions of  the  Material  employed  in  Tunneling,  Bridging,  Canal  and 
Road  Building,  etc.  12mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

SHOCK,  W.  H.  Steam  Boilers:  their  Design,  Construc- 
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SHREVE,  S    H.     A  Treatise  on  the  Strength  of  Bridges: 

and  Roofs.  Comprising  the  determination  of  algebraic  formulas: 
for  strains  in  Horizontal,  Inclined  or  Rafter,  Triangular,  Bow- 
string, Lenticular  and  other  Trusses,  from  fixed  and  moving  loads,, 
with  practical  applications  and  examples,  for  the  use  of  Student* 
and  Engineers.  87  woodcut  illustrations.  Fourth  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth $3.50 

SHUNK,   W.    F.     The    Field   Engineer.     A   Handy   Book 

of  practice  in  the  Survey,  Location  and  Track-work  of  Railroads, 
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selected,  applicable  to  both  the  Standard  and  Narrow  Gauge, 
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Engineer.  Sixteenth  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  With 
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54  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

SIMMS,  F.  W.     A  Treatise  on  the  Principles  and  Practice 

of  Leveling.  Showing  its  application  to  purposes  of  Railway 
Engineering,  and  the  Construction  of  Roads,  etc.  Revised  and 
corrected,  with  the  addition  of  Mr.  Laws'  Practical  Examples  for 
setting  out  Railway  Curves.  Illustrated.  8vo,  cloth $2 . 50 

Practical   Tunneling.     Fourth   Edition,    Revised   and 

greatly  extended.  With  additional  chapters  illustrating  recent 
practice  by  D.  Kinnear  Clark.  With  36  plates  and  other  illustra- 
tions. Imperial  8vo,  cloth S8 . 00 

SIMPSON,   G.     The  Naval  Constructor.     A  Vade  Mecum 

of  Ship  Design,  for.  Students,  Naval  Architects,  Ship  Builders  and 
Owners,  Marine  Superintendents,  Engineers  and  Draughtsmen. 
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SLATER,    J.    W.     Sewage     Treatment,    Purification    and 

Utilization.  A  Practical  Manual  for  the  Use  of  Corporations, 
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SMITH,  F.  E.     Handbook  for  Mechanics.     I2mo,   cloth, 

illustrated In  Press. 

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pp.,  illustrated In  Press. 

I.  W.,  C.E.  The  Theory  of  Deflections  and  of  Lati- 
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Surveys,  for  Alignments  of  Railway  Tracks.  Illustrated.  16mo, 
morocco,  tucks $3 . 00 

J.  C.     Manufacture  of  Paint.    A  Practical  Handbook 

for  Paint  Manufacturers,  Merchants  and  Painters  With  60  illus- 
trations and  one  large  diagram.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3.00 

SNELL,  A.  T.  Electric  Motive  Power:  The  Transmission 
and  Distribution  of  Electric  Power  by  Continuous  and  Alternate 
Currents.  With  a  Section  on  the  Applications  of  Electricity  to 
Mining  Work.  Second  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. .  net,  $4 . 00 

SNOW,  W.  G.,  and  NOLAN,  T.     Ventilation  of  Buildings. 

16mo,  cloth.     (Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series.) $0.50 

SODDY,    F.      Radio-Activity :     An     elementary     treatise 

from  the  standpoint  of  the  disintegration  theory.  With  40  figures 
and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $3 .00 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  55 

SOXHLET,   D.   H.     Art   of  Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble, 

Artificial  Stone,  Bone,  Horn,  Ivory  and  Wood,  and  of  imitating 
all  sorts  of  Wood.  A  practical  Handbook  for  the  use  of  Joiners, 
Turners,  Manufacturers  of  Fancy  Goods,  Stick  and  Umbrella 
Makers,  Comb  Makers,  etc.  Translated  from  the  German  by 
Arthur  Morris  and  Herbert  Robson,  B.Sc.  8vo,  cloth,  170 
pages net ,  $2 . 50 

SPANG,  H.  W.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Pro- 
tection. With  figures  and  diagrams.  12mo,  cloth $1.00 

SPEYERS,     C.     L.     Text-book     of    Physical     Chemistry. 

8vo,  cloth $2.25 

STAHL,  A.  W.,  and  WOODS,  A.  T.  Elementary  Mechan- 
ism. A  Text-book  for  Students  of  Mechanical  Engineering. 
Fifteenth  Edition.  12mo,  cloth $2 . 00 

STALEY,  C.,  and  PIERSON,  G.  S.     The  Separate  System 

of  Sewerage:  its  Theory  and  Construction.  Third  Edition, 
revised  and  enlarged.  With  chapter  on  Sewage  Disposal.  With 
maps,  plates  and  illustrations.  8vo,  cloth $3.00 

STAND  AGE,    H.    C.     Leatherworkers'    Manual:     being   a 

Compendium  of  Practical  Recipes  and  Working  Formulae  for 
Curriers,  Boot-makers,  Leather  Dressers,  Blacking  Manufac- 
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Sealing  Waxes,  Wafers,   and  Other  Adhesives.     For 

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pages net,  $2.00 

STEWART,  R.  W.  Text-book  of  Heat.  Illustrated.  8vo, 
cloth $1 .00 

Text-book  of  Magnetism  and  Electricity.  160  Illus- 
trations and  numerous  examples.  12mo,  cloth $1 .00 

STILES,   A.     Tables    for   Field   Engineers.     Designed   for 

Use  in  the  Field.  Tables  containing  all  jthe  Functions  of  a  One 
Degree  Curve,  from  which  a  corresponding  one  can  be  found  for 
any  required  Degree.  Also,  Tables  of  Natural  Sines  and  Tangents. 
12mo,  morocco,  tucks $2 . 00 


56  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

STILLMAN,  P.     Steam-engine  Indicator  and  the  Improved 

Manometer  Steam  and  Vacuum  Gauges;  their  Utility  and  Appli- 
cation. New  edition.  12mo,  flexible  cloth $1 . 00 

STODOLA,   Dr.  A.     Steam  Turbines.     With  an  appendix 

on  Gas  Turbines,  and  the  future  of  Heat  Engines.  Authorized 
translation  by  Dr.  Louis  C.  Loewenstein  (Lehigh  University). 
With  241  cuts  and  3  lithographed  tables.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated. 

net,  $4 . 50 

STONE,   R.,   Gen'l.     New  Roads  and  Road  Laws  in  the 

United  States.  200  pages,  with  numerous  illustrations.  12mo, 
cloth $1.00 

STONEY,  B.  D.     The  Theory  of  Stresses  in  Girders  and 

Similar  Structures.  With  Observations  on  the  Application  of 
Theory  to  Practice,  and  Tables  of  Strength  and  other  Properties 
of  Materials.  New  revised  edition,  with  numerous  additions  on 
Graphic  Statics,  Pillars,  Steel,  Wind  Pressure,  Oscillating  Stresses, 
Working  Loads,  Riveting,  Strength  and  Tests  of  Materials. 
777  pages,  143  illus.  and  5  folding-plates.  8vo,  cloth.  ...  $12.50 

SUPPLING,  E.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting. 

Prefaced  with  a  Review  of  Ancient  Glass.  With  engravings  and 
colored  plates.  8vo,  cloth net,  $3 . 50 

SWEET,  S.  H.  Special  Report  on  Coal,  Showing  its  Dis- 
tribution, Classification,  and  Costs  delivered  over  Different  Routes 
to  Various  Points  in  the  State  of  New  York  and  the  Principal 
Cities  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  With  maps.  8vo>  cloth $3.00 

SWOOPE,  C.  W.  Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity:  Prin- 
ciples, Experiments,  and  Arithmetical  Problems  An  Elementary 
Text-book.  With  numerous  tables,  formulae,  and  two  large  in- 
struction plates.  8  vo,  cloth,  illustrated.  Seventh  Edition,  .net,  $2.00 

TAILFER,    L.     Practical    Treatise    on    the    Bleaching    of 

Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics.  With  tables  and  diagrams. 
Translated  from  the  French  by  John  Geddes  Mclntosh.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $5.00 

TEMPLETON,  W.      The  Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop 

Companion.  Comprising  a  great  variety  of  the  most  useful 
rules  and  formulae  in  Mechanical  Science,  with  numerous  tables 
of  practical  data  and  calculated  results  facilitating  mechanical 
operations.  Revised  and  enlarged  by  W.  S.  Hutton.  12mo, 
morocco $2 . 00 

L 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  57 

THOM,  C.,  and  JONES,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections: 

embracing  Recent  Methods  in  Quadruples  Telegraphy.     20  full- 
page  plates,  some  colored.     Oblong,  8vo,  cloth $1 .50 


THOMAS,  C.  W.     Paper-makers'  Handbook.    A  Practical 

Treatise.     Illustrated In  Press. 

THOMPSON,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia  and  the  Russian 

Petroleum  Industry.  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Explora- 
tion, Exploitation,  and  Management  of  Russian  Oil  Properties, 
including  Notes  on  the  Origin  of  Petroleum  in  Russia,  a  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Liquid  Fuel,  and  a  Translation 
of  the  Rules  and  Regulations  concerning  Russian  Oil  Properties. 
With  numerous  illustrations  and  photographic  plates  and  a  map 
of  the  Balakhany-Saboontchy-Romany  Oil  Field.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $7.50 

THOMPSON,    E.    P.,    M.E.     How    to    Make    Inventions; 

or,  Inventing  as  a  Science  and  an  Art.  A  Practical  Guide  for 
Inventors.  Second  Edition.  8vo,  boards $0.50 

Roentgen   Rays   and   Phenomena  of  the  Anode   and 

Cathode.  Principles,  Applications,  and  Theories.  For  Students, 
Teachers,  Physicians,  Photographers,  Electricians  and  others. 
Assisted  by  Louis  M.  Pignolet,  N.  D.  C.  Hodges  and  Ludwig 
Gutmann,  E.E.  With  a  chapter  on  Generalizations,  Arguments, 
Theories,  Kindred  Radiations  and  Phenomena.  By  Professor  Wm. 
Anthony.  50  diagrams,  40  half-tones.  8vo,  cloth $1 .00 

THOMPSpN,   W.   P.     Handbook   of  Patent  Law   of  All 

Countries.  Thirteenth  Edition,  completely  revised,  March,  1905. 
16mo,  cloth $1 . 50 

THORNLEY,  T.  Cotton  Combing  Machines.  With  Nu- 
merous tables,  engravings  and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated, 
343  pages. net,  $3 .00 

THURSO,  J.   W.     Modern  Turbine  Practice  and  Water- 

Power  Plants.  With  eighty-eight  figures  and  diagrams.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $4.00 


TOCH,  M.     Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints. 

8vo,  cloth In  Press. 


58  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

TODD,   J.,   and  WHALL,   W.   B.     Practical   Seamanship 

for  Use  in  the  Merchant  Service:  including  all  ordinary  subjects; 
also  Steam  Seamanship,  Wreck  Lifting,  Avoiding  Collision.  Wire 
Splicing,  Displacement  and  everything  necessary  to  be  known 
by  seamen  of  the  present  day.  Fifth  Edition,  with  247  illus- 
trations and  diagrams.  8vo,  cloth net,  $7 . 50 

TOMPKINS,    A.    E.     Text-book    of   Marine    Engineering. 

Second  Edition,  entirely  rewritten,  rearranged,  and  enlarged.  With 
over  250  figures,  diagrams,  and  full-page  plates.  8vo,  cloth, 
illustrated net,  $6.00 

TOOTHED  GEARING.     A  Practical  Handbook  for  Offices 

and  Workshops.  By  a  Foreman  Patternmaker.  184  illustra- 
tions. 12mo,  cloth $2 . 25 

TRATMAN,  E.   E.   R.     Railway  Track  and  Track-work. 

With  over  200  illustrations.     8vo,  cloth $3 . 00 

TRAVERSE    TABLE,    Showing    Latitude    and    Departure 

for  each  Quarter  Degree  of  the  Quadrant,  and  for  Distances  from  1 
to  100,  to  which  is  appended  a  Table  of  Natural  Sines  and  Tan- 
gents for  each  five  minutes  of  the  Quadrant.  (Reprinted  from 
Scribner's  Pocket  Table  Book.)  Van  Nostrand's  Science  Series. 

16mo,  cloth $0.50 

Morocco $1 .00 

TRINKS,  W.,  and  HOUSUM,  C.     Shaft  Governors.     i6mo, 

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TUCKER,  J.  H.,  Dr.  A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis,  in- 
cluding the  Applications  in  General  of  Analytical  Methods  to  the 
Sugar  Industry.  With  an  Introduction  on  the  Chemistry  of 
Cane-sugar,  Dextrose,  Levulose,  and  Milk-sugar.  Sixth  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth,  illustrated $3 . 50 

TUMLIRZ,  0.,  Dr.     Potential  and  its  Application  to  the 

Explanation  of  Electrical  Phenomena,  Popularly  Treated.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German  by  D.  Robertson.  12mo,  cloth,  ill.  $1 .25 

TUNNER,  P.  A.  Treatise  on  Roll-turning  for  the  Manu- 
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the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Works,  with  numerous  engravings,  wood- 
cuts. 8vo,  cloth,  with  folio  atlas  of  plates $10.00 

TURBAYNE,  A.  A.  Alphabets  and  Numerals.  With  27 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  59 

UNDERBILL,     C.    R.     The    Electro-magnet.     New    and 

revised  edition.     8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $1 . 50 

URQUHART,  J.  W.      Electric  Light  Fitting.      Embodying 

Practical  Notes  on  Installation  Management.  A  Handbook  for 
Working  Electrical  Engineers.  With  numerous  illustrations. 
12mo,  cloth $2.00 

Electro-plating.  A  Practical  Handbook  on  the  Depo- 
sition of  Copper,  Silver,  Nickel,  Gold,  Brass,  Aluminium,  Plati- 
num, etc.  Fourth  Edition.  12mo $2 . 00 

Electrotyping.    A  Practical  Manual  Forming  a  New 

and  Systematic  Guide  to  the  Reproduction  and  Multiplication  of 
Printing  Surfaces,  etc.  12mo $2.00 

Electric  Ship  Lighting.     A  Handbook  on  the  Practical 

Fitting  and  Running  of  Ship's  Electrical  Plant.  For  the  Use  of 
Ship  Owners  and  Builders,  Marine  Electricians  and  Sea-going 
Engineers-in-Charge.  Illustrated.  12mo,  cloth $3.00 

UNIVERSAL    TELEGRAPH    CIPHER    CODE.     Arranged 

for  General  Correspondence.     12mo,  cloth $1 .00 

VAN  NOSTRAND'S   Chemical  Annual,  based  on  Bieder- 

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Engineering  Magazine.     Complete  Sets,  1869  to  1886 

inclusive.     35  vols.,  in  cloth $60 . 00 

"     "      in  half  morocco $100.00 

Year  Book  of  Mechanical  Engineering  Data.      With 

many  tables  and  diagrams.     (First  Year  of  issue  1906.)    In  Press. 

VAN   WAGENEN,   T.   F.     Manual   of  Hydraulic   Mining. 

For  the  Use  of  the  Practical  Miner.  Revised  and  enlarged  edition. 
18mo,  cloth $1 .00 

VILLON,  A.  M.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Leather  Industry. 

With  many  tables  and  illustrations  and  a  copious  index.  A  trans- 
lation of  Villon's  "Traite  Pratique  de  la  Fabrication  des  Cuirs  et 
du  Travail  des  Peaux,"  by  Frank  T.  Addyman,  B.Sc.  8vo, 
cloth,  illustrated net,  $10.00 


60  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

VINCENT,     C.      Ammonia    and    its    Compounds:     their 

Manufacture  and  Uses.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  J. 
Salter.  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net,  $2 . 00 

VOLK,    C.     Haulage    and    Winding    Appliances    Used    in 

Mines.  With  plates  and  engravings.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man. 8vo,  cloth,  illustrated net ,  $4 . 00 

VON  GEORGIEVICS,  G.  Chemical  Technology  of  Textile 
Fibres :  their  Origin,  Structure,  Preparation,  Washing,  Bleaching, 
Dyeing,  Printing,  and  Dressing.  Translated  from  the  German 
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SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS.  61 

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64  D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

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SCIENTIFIC   PUBLICATIONS.  65 

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-  and  HAYFORD,  J.  F.     Adjustment  of  Observations 

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ZEUNER,  A.,  Dr.  Technical  Thermodynamics.  Trans- 
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8vo,  cloth,  illustrated In  Press. 

ZIMMER,  G.  F.  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material.  Be- 
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higher  Technical  Schools,  as  also  for  self -instruction.  Based  upon 
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Weaving  Schools.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Chas.  Salter. 
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Catalogue  of  the  Van  Nostrand 
Science  Series. 


*1THEY  are  put  up  in  a  uniform,  neat,  and  attractive  form.     i8mo, 
boards.      Price  50  cents  per  volume.      The  subjects  are  of  an 
eminently  scientific  character  and  embrace  a  wide  range  of  topics,  and 
are  amply  illustrated  when  the  subject  demands. 

No.  i.  CHIMNEYS  FOR  FURNACES  AND  STEAM  BOILERS.  By 
R.  Armstrong,  C.E.  Third  American  Edition.  Revised  and 
partly  rewritten,  with  an  Appendix  on  "Theory  of  Chimney 
Draught,"  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.E. 

No.  2.  STEAM-BOILER  EXPLOSIONS.  By  Zerah  Colburn.  New 
Edition,  revised  by  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

No.  3.  PRACTICAL  DESIGNING  OF  RETAINING-WALLS.  Fourth 
edition,  by  Prof.  W.  Cain. 

No.  4.  PROPORTIONS  OF  PINS  USED  IN  BRIDGES.  By  Charles 
E.  Bender,  C.E.  Second  edition,  with  Appendix. 

No.  5.  VENTILATION  OF  BUILDINGS.  By  Wm.  G.  Snow,  S.B.,  and 
Thos.  Nolan,  A.M. 

No.  6.  ON  THE  DESIGNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  STORAGE 
Reservoirs.  By  Arthur  Jacob,  B.A.  Third  American  edition, 
revised,  with  additions  by  E.  Sherman  Gould. 

No.  7.  SURCHARGED  AND  DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  RETAINING- 

walls.     By  James  S.  Tate,  C.E. 

No.  8.  A  TREATISE  ON  THE  COMPOUND  STEAM-ENGINE.  By 
John  Turnbull,  Jr.  2nd  edition,  revised  by  Prcf.  S.  W.  Robinson. 

No.  9.  A  TREATISE  ON  FUEL.  By  Arthur  V.  Abbott,  C.E.  Founded 
on  the  original  treatise  of  C.  William  Siemens,  D.C.L.  Third  ed. 

No.  10.  COMPOUND  ENGINES.  Translated  from  the  French  of  A. 
Mallet.  Second  edition,  revised  with  results  of  American  Prac- 
tice, by  Richard  H.  Buel,  C.E. 

No.  ii.  THEORY  OF  ARCHES.     By  Prof.  W.  Allan. 

No.  12.  THEORY  OF  VOUSSOIR  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  Wm.  Cain. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  13.  GASES  MET  WITH  IN  COAL  MINES.  By  J.  T.  Atkinson. 
Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  to  which  is  added  The  Action 
of  Coal  Dusts  by  Edward  H.  Williams,  Jr. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO. '8  SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  14.  FRICTION  OF  AIR  IN  MINES.  By  J.  J.  Atkinson.  Second 
American  edition. 

No.  15.  SKEW  ARCHES.  By  Prof.  E.  W.  Hyde,  C.E.  Illustrated. 
Second  edition. 

No.  16.  GRAPHIC  METHOD  FOR  SOLVING  CERTAIN  QUESTIONS 

in  Arithmetic  or  Algebra.  By  Prof.  G.  L.  Vose.  Second 
edition. 

No.  17.  WATER  AND  WATER-SUPPLY.     By  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield, 

of  the  University  College,  London.     Second  American  edition. 

No.  1 8.  SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  PURIFICATION.  By  M.  N. 
Baker,  Associate  Editor  "Engineering  News."  Second  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  19.  STRENGTH  OF  BEAMS  UNDER  TRANSVERSE  LOADS. 
By  Prof.  W.  Aflan,  author  of  "  Theory  of  Arches."  Second 
edition,  revised. 

No.  20.  BRIDGE  AND  TUNNEL  CENTRES.  By  John  B.  McMaster, 
C.E.  Second  edition. 

No.  21.  SAFETY  VALVES.     By  Richard  H.  Buel,  C.E.     Third  edition. 

No.  22.  HIGH  MASONRY  DAMS.  By  E.  Sherman  Gould,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E. 

No.  23.  THE  FATIGUE  OF  METALS  UNDER  REPEATED  STRAINS. 

With  various  Tables  of  Results  and  Experiments.  From  the 
German  of  Prof.  Ludwig  Spangenburg,  with  a  Preface  by  S.  H. 
Shreve,  A.M. 

No.  24.  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  TEETH  OF  WHEELS. 
By  Prof.  S.  W.  Robinson.  2nd  edition,  revised,  with  additions. 

No.  25.  THEORY  AND  CALCULATION  OF  CANTILEVER  BRIDGES. 
By  R.  M.  Wilcox. 

No.  26.  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE  PROPERTIES  OF  CON- 

tinuous  Bridges.     By  Charles  Bender,  C.E. 

No.  27.  BOILER    INCRUSTATION    AND    CORROSION.     By    F.    J. 

Rowan.  New  edition.  Revised  and  partly  rewritten  by  F.  E. 
Idell. 

No.  28.  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  WIRE  ROPES.     By  Albert 

W.  Stahl,  U.S.N.     Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  29.  STEAM  INJECTORS,  THEIR  THEORY  AND  USE.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  M.  Leon  Pochet. 

No.  30.  MAGNETISM    OF    IRON    VESSELS    AND    TERRESTRIAL 

Magnetism.     By  Prof.  Fairman  Rogers. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  31.  THE    SANITARY   CONDITION  OF   CITY  AND   COUNTRY 

Dwelling-houses.     By  George   E.   Waring,  Jr.     Second   edition, 
revised. 

No.  32.  CABLE-MAKING    FOR    SUSPENSION    BRIDGES.    By    W. 

Hildenbrand,  C.E. 

No.  33.  MECHANICS  OF  VENTILATION.  By  George  W.  Rafter,  C.E. 
Second  edition,  revised. 

No.  34.  FOUNDATIONS.  By  Prof.  Jules  Gaudard,  C.E.  Trans- 
lated from  the  French.  Second  edition. 

No.  35.  THE  ANEROID  BAROMETER:  ITS  CONSTRUCTION  A.ND 
Use.  Compiled  by  George  W.  Plympton.  Ninth  edition, 
revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  36.  MATTER  AND  MOTION.  By  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  M.A.  Second 
American  edition. 

No.  37-  GEOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING:  ITS  USES,  METHODS, 
and  Results.  By  Frank  De  Yeaux  Carpenter,  C.E. 

No.  38.  MAXIMUM  STRESSES  IN  FRAMED  BRIDGES.  By  Prof. 
William  Cain,  A.M.,  C.E.  New  and  revised  edition. 

No.  39-  A    HANDBOOK    OF    THE    ELECTRO-MAGNETIC    TELE- 

graph.     By  A.  E.  Loring.     Fourth  edition,  revised. 

No.  40.  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER  BY  COMPRESSED  AIR.     By 

Robert  Zahner,  M.E.     New  edition,  in  press. 

No.  41.  STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS.  By  William  Kent,  C.E., 
Assoc.  Editor  "Engineering  News."  Second  edition. 

No.  42.  THEORY  OF  STEEL-CONCRETE  ARCHES,  AND  OF 

Vaulted    Structures.       By    Prof.    Wm.    Cain.       Third     edition, 
thoroughly  revised. 

No.  43.  WAVE  AND  VORTEX  MOTION.  By  Dr.  Thomas  Craig, 
of  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

No.  44.  TURBINE  WHEELS.  By  Prof.  W.  P.  Trowbridge,  Columbia 
College.  Second  edition.  Revised. 

No.  45.  THERMO-DYNAMICS.  By  Prof.  H.  T.  Eddy,  University 
of  Cincinnati.  New  edition,  in  press. 

No.  46.  ICE-MAKING  MACHINES.  From  the  French  of  M.  Le  Doux. 
Revised  by  Prof.  J.  E.  Denton,  D.  S.  Jacobus,  and  A.  Riesenberger. 
Fifth  edition,  revised. 

No.  47.  LINKAGES:  THE  DIFFERENT  FORMS  AND  USES  OF 
Articulated  Links.  By  J.  D.  C.  De  Roos. 

No.  48.  THEORY  OF  SOLID  AND  BRACED  ELASTIC  ARCHES 
By  William  Cain,  C.E. 

No.  49.  MOTION  OF  A  SOLID  IN  A  FLUID.     By  Thomas  Craig,  Ph.D, 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  50.  DWELLING-HOUSES:      THEIR     SANITARY     CONSTRUC- 

tion  and  Arrangements.     By  Prof.  W.  H.  Corfield. 

No.  51.  THE  TELESCOPE  :  OPTICAL  PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED  IN 
the  Construction  of  Refracting  and  Reflecting  Telescopes,  with 
a  new  chapter  on  the  Evolution  of  the  Modern  Telescope,  and  a 
Bibliography  to  date.  With  diagrams  and  folding  plates.  By 
Thomas  Nolan.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  52.  IMAGINARY    QUANTITIES:     THEIR    GEOMETRICAL    IN- 

terpretation.     Translated  from   the    French    of   M.    Argand  by 
Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy. 

No.  53.  INDUCTION  COILS:  HOW  MADE  AND  HOW  USED. 
Eleventh  American  edition. 

No.  54.  KINEMATICS    OF    MACHINERY.     By    Prof.    Alex.    B.    W. 

Kennedy.     With  an  introduction  by  Prof.  R.  H.  Thurston. 

No.  55.  SEWER  GASES:    THEIR  NATURE  AND  ORIGIN.     By  A. 

de  Varona.     Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  56.  THE  ACTUAL  LATERAL  PRESSURE  OF  EARTHWORK. 

By  Benj.  Baker,  M.  Inst.,  C.E. 

No.  57.  INCANDESCENT  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING.  A  Practical  De- 
scription of  the  Edison  System.  By  L.  H.  Latimer.  To 
which  is  added  the  Design  and  Operation  of  Incandescent  Sta- 
tions, by  C.  J.  Field;  and  the  Maximum  Efficiency  of  Incandescent 
Lamps,  by  John  W.  How  ell. 

No.  58.  VENTILATION  OF  COAL  MINES.  By  W.  Fairley,  M.E., 
and  Geo.  J.  Andre. 

No.  59.  RAILROAD  ECONOMICS;    OR,  NOTES  WITH  COMMENTS. 

By  S.  W.  Robinson,  C.E. 

No.  60.  STRENGTH  OF  WROUGHT-IRON  BRIDGE  MEMBERS. 
By  S.  W.  Robinson,  C.E. 

No.  61.  POTABLE  WATER,  AND  METHODS  OF  DETECTING 
Impurities.  By  M.  N.  Baker.  Second  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  62.  THEORY  OF  THE  GAS-ENGINE.  By  Dougald  Clerk.  Third 
edition.  With  additional  matter.  Edited  by  F.  E.  Idell,  M.E. 

No.  63.  HOUSE-DRAINAGE  AND  SANITARY  PLUMBING.  By  W. 
P.  Gerhard.  Tenth  edition. 

No.  64.  ELECTRO-MAGNETS.     By  A.  N.  Mansfield. 

No.  65.  POCKET  LOGARITHMS  TO  FOUR  PLACES  OF  DECIMALS. 

Including  Logarithms  of  Numbers,  etc. 

No.  66.  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINERY.  By  S.  P.  Thompson. 
With  an  Introduction  by  F.  L.  Pope.  Third  edition,  revised. 

No.  67.  HYDRAULIC  TABLES  FOR   THE  CALCULATION  OF    THE 

Discharge    through    Sewers,    Pipes,    and    Conduits.      Based    on 
"Kutter's  Formula."     By  P.  J.  Flynn. 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  68.  STEAM-HEATING.  By  Robert  Briggs.  Third  edition,  re- 
vised, with  additions  by  A.  R.  Wolff. 

No.  69.  CHEMICAL    PROBLEMS.     By    Prof.    J.    C.    Foye.     Fourth 

edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  70.  EXPLOSIVE  MATERIALS.     By  Lieut  John  P.  Wisser. 

No.  71.  DYNAMIC  ELECTRICITY.  By  John  Hopkinson,  J.  A. 
Shoolbred,  and  R.  E.  Day. 

No.  72.  TOPOGRAPHICAL  SURVEYING.  By  George  J.  Specht. 
Prof.  A.  S.  Hardy,  John  B.  McMaster,  and  H.  F.  Walling.  Third 
edition,  revised. 

No.  73.  SYMBOLIC  ALGEBRA;  OR,  THE  ALGEBRA  OF  ALGE- 
braic  Numbers.  By  Prof.  William  Cain. 

No.  74.  TESTING    MACHINES:      THEIR    HISTORY,    CONSTRUC- 

tion  and  Use.     By  Arthur  V.  Abbott. 

No.  75.  RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC  MACHINES. 
Being  a  Supplement  to  "Dynamo-electric  Machinery."  By 
Prof.  Sylvanus  P.  Thompson. 

No.  76.  MODERN    REPRODUCTIVE    GRAPHIC    PROCESSES.     By 

Lieut.  James  S.  Pettit,  U.S.A. 

No.  77.  STADIA  SURVEYING.  The  Theory  of  Stadia  Measure- 
ments. By  Arthur  Winslow.  Sixth  edition, 

No.  78.  THE  STEAM-ENGINE  INDICATOR  AND  ITS  USE.  By 
W.  B.  Le  Van. 

No.  79.  THE  FIGURE  OF  THE  EARTH.     By  Frank  C.  Roberts,  C.E. 

No.  80.  HEALTHY  FOUNDATIONS  FOR  HOUSES.  By  Glenn 
Brown. 

No.  81.  WATER  METERS:  COMPARATIVE  TESTS  OF  ACCURACY, 

Delivery,  etc.     Distinctive   features  of   the    Worthington,    Ken- 
nedy, Siemens,  and  Hesse  meters.     By  Ross  E.  Browne. 

No.  82.  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  TIMBER  BY  THE  USE  OF  ANTI- 
septics.  By  Samuel  Bagster  Boulton,  C.E. 

No.  83.  MECHANICAL  INTEGRATORS.  By  Prof.  Henry  S.  H. 
Shaw,  C.E. 

No.  84.  FLOW  OF  WATER  IN  OPEN  CHANNELS,  PIPES,  CON- 
duits,  Sewers,  etc.  With  Tables.  By  P.  J.  Flynn,  C.E. 

No.  85.  THE  LUMINIFEROUS  .ETHER.    By  Prof.  De  Volson  Wood. 

No.  86.  HANDBOOK   OF   MINERALOGY:     DETERMINATION,    DE- 

scription,  and   Classification  cf  Minerals   Found   in   the  United 
States.     By  Prof.  J.  C.  Foye.     Fifth  edition,  revised. 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  87.  TREATISE  ON  THE  THEORY  OF  THE  CONSTRUCTION 

of  Helicoidal  Oblique  Arches.     By  John  L.  Culley,  O.E. 

No.  88.  BEAMS  AND  GIRDERS.     Practical  Formulas  for  their  Resist- 
ance.    By  P.  H.  Philbrick. 

No.  89.  MODERN    GUN    COTTON:     ITS    MANUFACTURE,    PROP- 

erties,  and  Analyses.     By  Lieut.  John  P.  Wisser,  U  J3.A. 

No.  go.  ROTARY   MOTION  AS  APPLIED    TO    THE   GYROSCOPE. 

By  Major  J.  G.  Barnard. 

No.  91.  LEVELING:       BAROMETRIC,      TRIGONOMETRIC,      AND 
Spirit.     By  Prof.  I.  O.  Baker.    Second  edition. 

No.  92.  PETROLEUM:  ITS  PRODUCTION  AND  USE.    By  Boverton 
Redwood,  F.I.C.,  F.C.S. 

No.  93.  RECENT  PRACTICE  IN  THE  SANITARY  DRAINAGE  OF 

Buildings.  With  Memoranda  on  the  Cost  of  Plumbing  Work. 
Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  By  William  Paul  Ger- 
hard,  C.E. 

No.  94.  THE    TREATMENT    OF    SEWAGE.     By    Dr.    C.    Meymott 
Tidy. 

No.  95.  PLATE-GIRDER  CONSTRUCTION.      By  Isami  Hiroi,  C.E. 
Fourth  edition,  revised. 

No.  96.  ALTERNATE  CURRENT  MACHINERY.     By  Gisbert  Kapp, 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.E. 

No.  97.  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  HOUSEHOLD  WASTES.     By  W.  Paul 

Gerhard,  Sanitary  Engineer. 

No.  98.  PRACTICAL  DYNAMO-BUILDING  FOR  AMATEURS.     HOW 

to  Wind  for  Any  Output.  By  Frederick  Walker.  Fully  illus- 
trated. Third  edition. 


Prof.  Osborne  Reynolds.     Edited  with  notes,  etc.,  by  F.  E. 


No.  99.  TRIPLE-EXPANSION    ENGINES    AND    ENGINE    TRIALS. 
By  Prof.  O 
Well,  M.E. 

No.  100.  HOW  TO  BECpME  AN  ENGINEER;    or,  The  Theoretical 

and  Practical  Training  necessary  in  Fitting  for  the  Duties  of 
the  Civil  Engineer.  By  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  1 01.  THE  SEXTANT,  and  Other  Reflecting  Mathematical  Instru- 
ments. With  Practical  Hints  for  their  Adjustment  and  Use. 
By  F.  R.  Brainard,  U.  S.  Navy. 

NoTio2.  THE     GALVANIC     CIRCUIT     INVESTIGATED     MATHE- 

matically.  By  Dr.  G.  S.  Ohm,  Berlin,  1827.  Translated  by 
William  Francis.  With  Preface  and  Notes  by  the  Editor,  Thomag 
D.  Lockwood,  M.I.E.E. 


OF   1  nt 

UNIVERSITY  j 

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D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S 

No.  103.  THE  MICROSCOPICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  POTABLE 
Water.  With  Diagrams.  By  Geo.  W.  Rafter.  Second  edition. 

No.  104.  VAN  NOSTRAND'S  TABLE-BOOK  FOR  CIVIL  AND  ME- 

chanical  Engineers.     Compiled  by  Prof.  Geo.  W.  Plympton. 

No.  105.  DETERMINANTS;  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of,  with 
Examples  and  Applications.  By  Prof.  G.  A.  Miller. 

No.  106.  COMPRESSED  AIR.  Experiments  upon  the  Transmission  of 
Power  by  Compressed  Air  in  Paris.  (Popp's  System.)  By 
Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy.  The  Transmission  and  Distribution 
of  Power  from  Central  Stations  by  Compressed  Air.  By  Prof. 
W.  C.  Unwin.  Edited  by  F.  E.  Idell.  Third  edition. 

No.  107.  A  GRAPHICAL  METHOD  FOR  SWING  BRIDGES.  A 
Rational  and  Easy  Graphical  Analysis  of  the  Stresses  in  Ordinary 
Swing  Bridges.  With  an  Introduction  on  the  General  Theory 
of  Graphical  Statics,  with  Folding  Plates.  By  Benjamin  F. 
La  Rue. 

No.  108.  SLIDE-VALVE  DIAGRAMS.  A  French  Method  for  Con- 
structing Slide-valve  Diagrams.  By  Lloyd  Bankson,  B.S., 
Assistant  Naval  Constructor,  U.  S.  Navy.  8  Folding  Plates. 

No.  109.  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  ELECTRIC  CURRENTS.  Elec- 
trical Measuring  Instruments.  By  James  Swinburne.  Meters 
for  Electrical  Energy.  By  C.  H.  Wordingham.  Edited,  with 
Preface,  by  T.  Commerford  Martin.  With  Folding  Plate  and 
Numerous  Illustrations. 

No.  no.  TRANSITION  CURVES.  A  Field-book  for  Engineers,  Con- 
taining Rules  and  Tables  for  Laying  out  Transition  Curves.  By 
Walter  G.  Fox,  C.E. 

No.  in.  GAS-LIGHTING  AND  GAS-FITTING.  Specifications  and 
Rules  for  Gas-piping.  Notes  on  the  Advantages  of  Gas  for 
Cooking  and  Heating,  and  Useful  Hints  to  Gas  Consumers.  Third 
edition.  By  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.E. 

No.  112.  A  PRIMER  ON  THE  CALCULUS,  By  E.  Sherman  Gould, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 

No.  113.  PHYSICAL  PROBLEMS  and  Their  Solution.  By  A.  Bour- 
gougnon,  formerly  Assistant  at  Bellevue  Hospital.  Second  ed. 

No.  114.  MANUAL  OF  THE  SLIDE  RULE.  By  F.  A.  Halsey,  of 
the  "American  Machinist."  Third  edition,  corrected. 

No.  115.  TRAVERSE  TABLE.  Showing  the  Difference  of  Latitude 
and  Departure  for  Distances  Between  1  and  100  and  for  Angles  to 
Quarter  Degrees  Between  1  Degree  and  90  Degrees.  (Reprinted 
from  Seribner's  Pocket  Ta1  .>  Book.) 


SCIENTIFIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

No.  116.  WORM  AND  SPIRAL  GEARING.  Reprinted  from  "  Ameri- 
can Machinist."  By  F.  A.  Halsey.  Second  revised  and  enlarged 
edition. 

No.  117.  PRACTICAL  HYDROSTATICS,  AND  HYDROSTATIC  FOR- 
mulas.  With  Numerous  Illustrative  Figures  and  Numerical 
Examples.  By  E.  Sherman  Gould. 

No.  118.  TREATMENT  OF  SEPTIC  SEWAGE,  with  Diagrams  and 
Figures.  By  Geo.  W.  Rafter. 

No.  119.  LAY-OUT   OF    CORLISS    VALVE   GEARS.     With  Folding 

Plates  and  Diagrams.  By  Sanford  A.  Moss,  M.S  ,  Ph.D  Re- 
printed from  "The  American  Machinist,"  with  revisions  and 
additions.  Second  edition. 

No.  120.  ART  OF  GENERATING  GEAR  TEETH.  By  Howard  A. 
Coombs.  With  Figures,  Diagrams  and  Folding  Plates.  Re- 
printed from  the  "American  Machinist." 

No.  121.  ELEMENTS  OF  GAS  ENGINE  DESIGN.  Reprint  of  a  Set 
of  Notes  accompanying  a  Course  of  Lectures  delivered  at  Cornell 
University  in  1902.  By  Sanford  A.  Moss.  Illustrated. 

No.  122.  SHAFT  GOVERNORS.  By  W.  Trinks  and  C.  Housum.  Il- 
lustrated. 

No.  123.  FURNACE  DRAFT;  ITS  PRODUCTION  BY  MECHANICAL 
Methods.  A  Handy  Reference  Book,  with  figures  and  tables.  By 
William  Wallace  Christie.  Illustrated. 


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